<p><em>Abstract</em></p><p>The research behind this licentiate is spread out over a decade of intensive development of environmental work in industry. A 1998 survey of Swedish companies with newly installed environmental management systems (EMS) concluded that such systems need more product-orientation. Data collected by companies as part of the process of creating their EMS between 1996-2001 offered further evidence that it is environmentally justified to seek improvements in the materials selection, use and disposal phases of products, i.e., to make the environmental improvement work more product-orientated. In a EU-funded project carried out between 2004-2006 it was demonstrated that developing an environmental product declaration could be a cost-effective product-oriented environmental action even for smaller companies.</p><p>This licentiate thesis relates to methods for companies to orientate their environmental work on their products. In particular, it examines experience and provides insights on the possibilities for companies, including small ones, to use life cycle assessment in product development in order to design products with an environmental performance well above legal compliance.</p><p>It is difficult to give general recommendations to companies about their environmental work because each company has its own unique business idea, customers, work culture, stakeholders etc. Nevertheless, the main findings of the licentiate thesis can be summed up in the following recommendations for, say, a small company in Europe without much previous experience of environmental work:</p><p>§  Focus your environmental work on your products because you will accomplish more environmentally and the chance of profiting economically will motivate your personnel;</p><p>§  Consider doing a life cycle assessment, LCA, on a strategically chosen product in order to learn more about your products and how to improve their environmental performance;</p><p>§  Do not expect to find a general market demand for green products; start a dialogue with your best customers in order to create the demand;</p><p>§  Engage an LCA specialist to do the LCA and work together with your personnel to interpret the results and generate improvement ideas;</p><p>§  If your customers demand that you install an environmental management system, ask them if they would not prefer to receive an environmental product declaration on the particular product they are interested in, and a chance to discuss how its environmental performance can be improved.</p>

In order to deal with the mounting issue of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in a way that is in line with sustainable development and Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) a systems approach is necessary.This approach can practically be integrated into the MSW decision-making process through Life Cycle Thinking(LCT) and environmental systems analysis tools such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). This paper is written within the context of the RECO Baltic 21 Tech (RB21T) project which aims to improve waste management practices in 12 countries in the Baltic Sea Region. The main aim of this paper is to investigate the extent to which LCA is used as decision-support in MSW management in Sweden, Estonia and Lithuania. The use of LCA is examined on a national level as well as on a local or regional level based on relevant literature and a set of interviews conducted in each country. According to the results the use of LCA as decision-support in MSW management is very limited in Estonia and Lithuania whilst it is already a well-established tool in Sweden. Most of the LCA efforts in the Baltic States have been conducted in connection with foreign projects and investments,such as RB21T. Although an actual LCA might not always be applied in Sweden, LCT is prevalent in MSW management both on a national and local level. In order for LCA to be better integrated into MSW management this paper argues that there is a need for increased knowledge, data, more user-friendly LCA-tools andstrengthening regional partnerships for further transfer of knowledge between countries.

De nyttor som människan får direkt och indirekt från ekosystemen kallas ekosystemtjänster. Mänsklighetens påverkan på ekosystemen idag leder till degradering av tjänsterna och då mänskligheten ytterst är beroende av vad de tillför, är bevarandet av dessa tjänster viktig. Livscykelanalys, LCA, är ett väletablerat verktyg som används för att fastställa miljöpåverkan från olika produktprocesser men få ekosystemtjänster beaktas i LCA. Det finns därför ett behov av att vidare undersöka och utveckla möjligheterna att med livscykelbaserade metoder analysera påverkan på ekosystemtjänster. Huvudsyftet med denna studie har varit att undersöka om det är möjligt att integrera ekosystemtjänstbegreppet i LCA-metodik. Detta har kartlagts med hjälp av en fallstudie på pelletsproduktion, som bl.a. identifierat berörda ekosystemtjänster och möjligheten att kvantifiera dem, vilka ekosystemtjänster som går att studera med LCA idag samt möjliga sätt att analysera påverkan på ekosystemtjänster med LCA. Ett delmål har varit att grundligt beskriva både ekosystemtjänster och LCA samt aspekter som kan koppla ihop dessa områden. En omfattande litteraturstudie och en LCA modellering rörande pelletsproduktion utgjorde grund för arbetet. I dagsläget är det inte möjligt att integrera ekosystemtjänstbegreppet i LCA-metodiken med undantag för de fåtal ekosystemtjänster som i LCA-metodiken redan beaktas i viss utsträckning. Det stora hindret är att det inte finns någon fullständig och enhetlig metodik för kartläggning, klassificering och kvantifiering av ekosystemtjänsterna, vilket anses nödvändigt för att kunna analysera påverkan på dem. Ett stort antal ekosystemtjänster såsom klimatreglering, näringsflöden, biodiversitet och rekreation kan kopplas till pelletsproduktion men påverkan på dem är inte möjlig att fullt ut analysera med LCA. Detta illustreras av LCA-modelleringen av pelletsproduktion där endast påverkan på tjänsterna förnybara energikällor och vattenanvändning ingår. Då kunskapen rörande olika ekosystemtjänster skiljer sig mycket åt varierar förutsättningarna för att inkludera dem i LCA-metodiken. Befintliga tillvägagångssätt för att försöka analysera påverkan på ekosystemtjänster med hjälp av LCA föreslår nya miljöpåverkanskategorier och samlandet av tjänsterna i gemensamma enheter såsom exergi och solekvivalenter. Metoderna är dock begränsade och täcker inte in ekosystemtjänsterna på ett fullgott sätt. Mer forskning behövs för att bättre utveckla tillvägagångsätten för analys av påverkan på ekosystemtjänster genom LCA. / The profits humankind obtains directly and indirectly from ecosystems are called ecosystem services. The impact human activities have on ecosystems lead to degradation of the ecosystem services and since humankind fully depends on what the ecosystems provide, the preservation of these services is crucial. Lifecycle assessment, LCA, is a well-established tool used to assess environmental impacts from different product processes but few ecosystem services are considered. Thus, there is a need to study and develop the possibilities to analyze ecosystem services through LCA based methods. The project aimed to determine whether it is possible to integrate the ecosystem-service concept into LCA-methodology. A case study on pellet production was carried out to identify relevant ecosystem services and the possibilities to quantify them, which ecosystem services that could be analyzed in LCA today and also available approaches to study impacts on ecosystem services with LCA. An intermediate goal was to present a comprehensive description of both ecosystem services and LCA and to map common aspects that connect the two fields. The analysis was based on a comprehensive literature study, and a specific LCA-modeling of pellet production. At present, it is not possible to integrate the ecosystem-service concept into LCA-methodology, except for the few ecosystem services that to some extent already are covered in the methodology. The main obstacle is the lack of coherent approaches to map, classify, and foremost quantify ecosystem services, which is considered crucial for analyzing the impact on them. A large number of ecosystem services such as climate regulation, nutrient cycling, biodiversity and recreation can be influenced by pellet production but it is not possible to fully analyze these impacts with LCA. This is illustrated by the LCA-modeling on pellet production where only impacts on the services renewable resources and water use could be included. The possibilities to analyze ecosystem services within LCA vary due to the variation in knowledge about certain services. The present approaches for analyzing more services with LCA propose new environmental impact categories an aggregation of services into common units such as exergy and solar equivalents. The methods are limited due to the fact that they are not able to cover the diversity of the services. More research is needed to develop the approaches for analyzing impacts on ecosystem services through LCA.

<p>The rise of the twenty-first century has seen the further increase in the industrialization of Earth’s resources, as society aims to meet the needs of a growing population while still protecting our environmental and natural resources. The advent of the industrial bioeconomy – which encompasses the production of renewable biological resources and their conversion into food, feed, and bio-based products – is seen as an important step in transition towards sustainable development and away from fossil fuels. One sector of the industrial bioeconomy which is rapidly being expanded is the use of biobased feedstocks in electricity production as an alternative to coal, especially in the European Union.</p><p>As bioeconomy policies and objectives increasingly appear on political agendas, there is a growing need to quantify the impacts of transitioning from fossil fuel-based feedstocks to renewable biological feedstocks. Specifically, there is a growing need to conduct a systems analysis and potential risks of increasing the industrial bioeconomy, given that the flows within it are inextricably linked. Furthermore, greater analysis is needed into the consequences of shifting from fossil fuels to renewable feedstocks, in part through the use of life cycle assessment modeling to analyze impacts along the entire value chain.</p><p>To assess the emerging nature of the industrial bioeconomy, three objectives are addressed: (1) quantify the global industrial bioeconomy, linking the use of primary resources with the ultimate end product; (2) quantify the impacts of the expaning wood pellet energy export market of the Southeastern United States; (3) conduct a comparative life cycle assessment, incorporating the use of dynamic life cycle assessment, of replacing coal-fired electricity generation in the United Kingdom with wood pellets that are produced in the Southeastern United States.</p><p>To quantify the emergent industrial bioeconomy, an empirical analysis was undertaken. Existing databases from multiple domestic and international agencies was aggregated and analyzed in Microsoft Excel to produce a harmonized dataset of the bioeconomy. First-person interviews, existing academic literature, and industry reports were then utilized to delineate the various intermediate and end use flows within the bioeconomy. The results indicate that within a decade, the industrial use of agriculture has risen ten percent, given increases in the production of bioenergy and bioproducts. The underlying resources supporting the emergent bioeconomy (i.e., land, water, and fertilizer use) were also quantified and included in the database.</p><p>Following the quantification of the existing bioeconomy, an in-depth analysis of the bioenergy sector was conducted. Specifically, the focus was on quantifying the impacts of the emergent wood pellet export sector that has rapidly developed in recent years in the Southeastern United States. A cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment was conducted in order to quantify supply chain impacts from two wood pellet production scenarios: roundwood and sawmill residues. For reach of the nine impact categories assessed, wood pellet production from sawmill residues resulted in higher values, ranging from 10-31% higher.</p><p>The analysis of the wood pellet sector was then expanded to include the full life cycle (i.e., cradle-to-grave). In doing to, the combustion of biogenic carbon and the subsequent timing of emissions were assessed by incorporating dynamic life cycle assessment modeling. Assuming immediate carbon neutrality of the biomass, the results indicated an 86% reduction in global warming potential when utilizing wood pellets as compared to coal for electricity production in the United Kingdom. When incorporating the timing of emissions, wood pellets equated to a 75% or 96% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions, depending upon whether the forestry feedstock was considered to be harvested or planted in year one, respectively.</p><p>Finally, a policy analysis of renewable energy in the United States was conducted. Existing coal-fired power plants in the Southeastern United States were assessed in terms of incorporating the co-firing of wood pellets. Co-firing wood pellets with coal in existing Southeastern United States power stations would result in a nine percent reduction in global warming potential.</p> / Dissertation

Le véhicule électrique est aujourd’hui présenté comme l’une des solutions alternatives sérieuses au véhicule à moteur à combustion interne, visant à limiter la consommation d’énergies fossiles, ainsi que les émissions de polluants locaux et de gaz à effet de serre. L’évaluation des forces et faiblesses de cette technologie au regard de l’environnement est aujourd’hui limitée, compte tenu notamment du peu de retour d’expérience sur ce type de véhicules.L’objectif de ce travail de recherche est de proposer une approche combinant une connaissance fine du véhicule étudié (obtenu notamment par des essais expérimentaux et l’utilisation de modèles de consommation) et de la méthode d’évaluation environnementale Analyse de Cycle de Vie (ACV), pour identifier les paramètres clefs du bilan environnemental, et par différentes analyses de sensibilité, d’en proposer une analyse détaillée. Pour y parvenir, des essais expérimentaux ont été réalisés sur un véhicule électrique à usage essentiellement urbain et son équivalent thermique. Un modèle permet d’estimer les consommations de véhicules selon leurs spécificités (chimie et capacité de batterie, rendement de la chaîne de traction) et leurs conditions d’utilisation (trafic, usages d’auxiliaires). Des hypothèses et scénarios sont également établis sur la durée de vie des batteries qui équipent le véhicule. Les jeux de données obtenus sont mis en œuvre dans l’ACV d’un véhicule électrique, et les résultats obtenus interprétés puis comparés à ceux du véhicule thermique équivalent. Enfin, analyses de sensibilité et test de divers scénarios permettent l’identification des paramètres clefs du bilan environnemental. / Today, the electric vehicle is seen as a potent substitute to the internal combustion engine vehicle, aiming at reducing consumption of fossil fuels, and emissions of local pollutants and greenhouse gases. The assessment of strengths and weaknesses of this technology from the environmental viewpoint is currently limited, especially considering the lack of experiment feedbacks.The objective of this research is to offer an approach combining a deep understanding of the studied vehicle (through experiments and use of consumption patterns) and the environmental assessment method “Life Cycle Analysis” (LCA), to identify the key parameters of environmental appraisal, and relying on different sensitivity analysis, to propose a detailed analysis.To achieve this, experimental tests were carried out on an urban electric vehicle and its internal combustion engine equivalent. A model was built to estimate the consumption of electric vehicles according to their characteristics (chemistry and battery capacity, vehicle energy efficiency) and use (traffic, use of auxiliaries). Assumptions and scenarios are also made on the lifetimes of batteries in the vehicle. The data sets obtained are implemented in the life cycle analysis of an electric vehicle, and the results are interpreted and compared to its internal combustion engine equivalent vehicle. In the end, sensitivity analysis and test of various scenarios allow the identification of key parameters for the environmental assessment.

Commercial aviation has demonstrated its ability to be a key driver of global socio-economic growth to this date. This growth, resulting from an ever increasing need for air-travel, has been observed to be environmentally unsustainable. Any technological enhancements to the upcoming fleet of aircraft or operational improvements have been overshadowed by this very demand for air-travel. Any further investigation into innovative concepts and optimisation approaches bring in trade-off difficulties due to limitations in current technology. This creates a constraint on design space exploration. The need to mitigate civil aviation’s environmental impact has necessitated this sector to expand its frontier and seek radical technologies. Among a range of other technologies, advanced biofuels for civil jet engines have been claimed to be one of the most promising solutions. “Techno-economic Environmental Risk Analysis (TERA) of Advanced Biofuels for Civil Aviation” is a study that contributes to knowledge through conception plus application of quantitative/ qualitative approaches to assess the technical viability, financial feasibility and environmental competence of 2nd and 3rd generation biojet fuels, through their application into the existing scenario of civil aviation, against that of the fossil-derived conventional jet fuel (Conv.Jet fuel). TERA of advanced biofuels aims to accomplish the aforementioned through a holistic, multi-disciplinary study entailing life cycle studies, carbon-foot printing, sustainability analysis, fuel chemistry, virtual studies comprising combustion thermodynamic, engine/aircraft performance and emission prediction, economic studies entailing biofuel price prediction and business case analysis as opposed to earlier studies. TERA of Advanced biofuels study entails development of elaborate life cycle models, ALCEmB (Assessment of Life Cycle Emissions of Biofuels) and ALCCoB (Assessment of Life Cycle Cost of Biofuels) to predict life cycle emissions and costs, respectively, of the advanced biofuels from the point of raw material generation to the point of finished product consumption (a “cradle-grave” approach). A virtual experiment, to assess the impact of the “performance” properties of the advanced biofuels on a representative twin-shaft turbofan/airframe combination, relative to that of Conv.Jet fuel, was also undertaken through numerical modelling and simulation.Evaluation through ALCEmB revealed that Camelina-SPK, Microalgae-SPK and Jatropha-SPK delivered 70%, 58% and 64% savings in life cycle emission, relative to Conv.Jet fuel. The Net Energy Ratio (NER) analysis indicates that current technology for the biofuel processing is energy efficient and technically feasible. An elaborate post-combustion gas property evaluation infers that the Bio-SPKs exhibit improved thermodynamic behaviour. This thermodynamic effect has a positive impact on mission-level fuel consumption which reflected as fuel savings in the range of 3 - 3.8% and, therefore, emission savings of 5.8-6.3% in CO2 and 7.1-8.3% in LTO NOx, relative to that of Jet-A1. An economic feasibility analysis which entails prediction of hypothetical biofuel price prediction and its impact on direct operating cost (DOC) of an aircraft which infers that Bio-SPKs, over a user-defined medium-range mission profile, costs an additional 95-100% in terms of aircraft DOC, relative to that operated with conventional Jet-fuel, within short (2020) and medium (2020). However, the advanced biofuels are able to exhibit financial competence from 2020 onwards, relative to that of Conv.Jet fuel. However, the Bio-SPKs exhibit this economic feasibility only against a backdrop of persistent Conv.Jet fuel price volatility and severe environmental taxation between the analysis periods (2020-2075).

The aim of this thesis was to evaluate the environmental impacts of NATM tunnelling method using the assembly of LCA studies. Construction sector still has large potential for advancement, and therefore is a subject of interest for also for LCA studies. Underground constructions applies more with growing demands for space in infrastructure. If sustainable growth in construction is desired, it's important to have an idea about the environmental impacts of this sector. Sustainable growth requires methods and tools for measurement and comparison of impacts of human activities on the environment. These tools are provided by LCA studies, which also allow a proactive approach. The advantage of LCA is a preview of the entire life cycle of the product, so there is no shifting of problems between the individual stages of the product's life cycle. LCA study of cradle-to-gate type was selected to evaluate New Austrian tunnelling method. LCA study was done for one tunnel, length 850m with cross-section surface of 13,46m2 excavated by the NATM method, realized over the course of 18 months. GaBi 6 software tool was used for making of this study. Results show that the most important emission sources of NATM tunnelling method are production of cement, dumping of excavated material, production of reinforcing steel...

Biomass is the world’s largest renewable energy source, accounting for approximately 10% of global primary energy supply, and 5% of energy consumed in the United States. Prominent national programs like the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard incentivize increased use of biomass, primarily as a transportation fuel. There has been comparatively little government support for using biomass as a renewable feedstock for the chemical sector. Such asymmetry in incentives can lead to sub-optimal outcomes in the allocation of biomass toward different uses. Greenhouse gas reduction is among the most cited benefits of bioenergy and bio-based products, however, there is increasing controversy about whether increased use of biomass can actually contribute to greenhouse gas emission targets. If biomass is to play a role in current and future greenhouse gas mitigation efforts its use should be guided by efficient use of natural and economic resources. This thesis addresses these questions through a series of case studies, designed to highlight important tradeoffs in the use of biomass for greenhouse gas mitigation. Should biomass be used as a fuel, a chemical feedstock, or neither? The first case study in this thesis focuses on the ‘fuel vs feedstock’ question, examining the greenhouse gas implications of expanding the scope of the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard to include credits for bioethylene, an important organic chemical readily produced from bioethanol. Results suggest that an expanded policy that includes bioethylene as an approved use for ethanol would provide added flexibility without compromising greenhouse gas targets – a clear win scenario. Having established that bioethylene based plastics can achieve similar greenhouse gas reductions to bioethanol used as fuel, this thesis expands the analysis by considering how the greenhouse gas emissions from a wider range of bio-based plastics compare to each of the main commodity thermoplastics produced in the U.S. The analysis demonstrates that there are large uncertainties involved in the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from bio-based plastics, and that only a subset of pathways are likely to be preferable to conventional plastics. The following chapter then builds on the existing model to compare the greenhouse gas mitigation potential of bio-based plastics to the potential for reducing emissions by adopting low carbon energy for plastics production. That chapter concludes that switching to renewable energy across the supply chain for conventional plastics energy cuts greenhouse gas emissions by 50-75%, achieving a greater reduction, with less uncertainty and lower cost, than switching to corn-based biopolymers – the most likely near-term biopolymer option. In the long run, producing bio-based plastics from advanced feedstocks (e.g. switchgrass) and/or with renewable energy likely offers greater emission reductions. Finally, this thesis returns to the dominant form of policy surrounding biomass use: biofuel mandates. That study takes a consequential approach to the ‘fuel or neither’ question. Specifically, this work examines how petroleum refineries are likely to adjust their production in response to biofuel policies, and what this implies for the success of these policies. The research demonstrates that biofuel policies induce a shift toward greater diesel production at the expense of both gasoline and non-combustion petroleum products. This has the potential to result in an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, even before accounting for the emissions from producing the biofuels themselves.

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations suggest that out of all food that is produced, 1/3 ends up as food waste. In high income countries, such as Sweden, the food waste mainly originates from the last stages of the food chain, e.g. at food stores and households. Sweden is a member of the EU as well as the United Nations, and follows the common legislation for waste in the EU and has adopted the Sustainable Development Goals from the United Nations. In the Sustainable Development Goal number 12, food waste in terms of reduction is addressed, although Sweden does not have a clear goal that addresses how to reduce food waste. Food banks have globally been a strategy to redistribute surplus food from the retail sector to people in need, something that has not been common in the Nordic region of Europe (including Sweden) until the 1980’s. However, in Sweden, food banks have not been used as a way to prevent food waste but as a way to help people in need, perhaps because there is a well-established well-fare system in the country. Recently, initiatives that redistribute surplus food from the retail sector have been developed - working towards different consumer groups and solutions. This study aimed to map out the different surplus food redistributing initiatives in Sweden, categorise them and analyse some of the initiatives that represented different solutions and consumer groups. The chosen initiatives were ReFood, City Mission Uppsala (Matkassen and Mikaelsgården), City Mission Stockholm (Matmissionen), Food2change, Foodloopz and Allwin. The methods used for analysing the chosen initiatives were Environmental Life Cycle Assessment, Social Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costing. To weigh the environmental-, social- and economic impacts against each other, a total sustainability ranking system was used to point out the most favourable option for a redistributing surplus food initiative, in terms of sustainability. The results showed that the environmental impacts (Green House Gases (kg CO2 equivalents/functional unit)) were the lowest for, in this order, ReFood, Mikaelsgården and Allwin, Foodloopz, Matmissionen and Matkassen, and Food2change. For the social impacts, the results showed that Allwin is the initiative that redistribute the largest amount of surplus food to the consumer group “exposed people”, followed by Matmissionen that redistribute the second largest amount of surplus food to “people with low income”. Allwin is also the initiative with the highest capacity and largest yearly environmental savings, as the company redistributes a much larger amount of food than the other initiatives. The results for the economic impacts showed that all but one initiative, Food2change, have monthly financial losses. The overall sustainability ranking showed that the initiative that is the most favourable is Matkassen followed by Matmissionen and Allwin, Food2change, Foodloopz, ReFood and Mikaelsgården.

The building and construction sectors are one of the main contributors to the socio-economic development of a country. Globally, these sectors generate around 5% to 10% of national employment and around 5% to 15% of a country's gross domestic product during construction, use and demolition. On the other hand, the sectors consume around 40% of world primary energy, use 30% of raw materials, generate 25% of solid waste, consume 25% of water, and use 12% of land. Furthermore, the sectors account for up to 40% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, mainly from energy use during the life cycle of buildings. This study aims to assess the potential environmental benefits of reusing concrete and ceramic roof tile within the Swedish context in terms of their CO2 emission. Methodology used was a comparative LCA was to quantify the emissions. In order to calculate LCA, OpenLCA 1.7.0 software was used and to evaluate the emissions, LCIA method selected was ReCiPe, midpoint, Hierarchist model, climate change category expressed in GWP 100 years (in kg CO2eq). The FU of the study was a square meter of roof covering for a period of 40 years with potential to extent up to 80 years. A square meter of concrete roof tile weight 40 kg while ceramic 30 kg. The environment impact evaluation considered three product system, single use (cradle to grave), single use covering (cradle to user) and single reuse (user to cradle) within 40 years lifespan. In order to compare LCA of the roof tiles, two scenarios were created, Scenario 1 concrete RT in single use and single reuse whilst Scenario 2 evaluates ceramic RT. The outcomes of both scenarios were communicated through a model single family house. Dalarna’s Villa is located in Dalarna region in Sweden and a storage facility Ta Till Våra was to validate the benefits of reused materials. Comparative LCA revealed that concrete RT in single use released almost 80% more CO2 emissions than ceramic RT and generated 25% more disposable material by weight. The CO2 released by the single use vs. single reuse concrete RT showed higher emissions in the production of the concrete RT than the single reuse, the same occur with ceramic RT. The reuse of the tiles on the same site had an insignificant impact on the environment in both materials. The comparison shows that reuse reduces associated emissions by about 80% in both cases, reusing concrete is more beneficial, as emissions are reduced by 9.95 kg/m2 as opposed to 2.32 kg/m2 at the ceramics. This study reveals the benefit of reusing concrete and ceramic roof tile. In addition, the advantage of building a storage facility to reuse the disposable building materials, reducing the roofing materials ending at the landfill after 40 years. Furthermore, it demonstrated the reduction of CO2 emissions associated with the embodied energy.