abstract: Prior work in literature has illustrated the benefits of using surge arrester as a way to improve the lighting performance of the substation and transmission line. Installing surge arresters would enhance the system reliability but it comes with an extra capital expenditure. This thesis provides simulation analysis to examine substation-specific applications of surge arrester as a way of determining the optimal, cost-effective placement of surge arresters. Four different surge arrester installation configurations are examined for the 500/230 kV Rudd substation which belongs to the utility, Salt River Project (SRP). The most efficient configuration is identified in this thesis. A new method “voltage-distance curve” is proposed in this work to evaluate different surge arrester installation configurations. Simulation results show that surge arresters only need to be equipped on certain location of the substation and can still ensure sufficient lightning protection. With lower tower footing resistance, the lightning performance of the transmission line can typically be improved. However, when surge arresters are installed in the system, the footing resistance may have either negative or positive effect on the lightning performance. Different situations for both effects are studied in this thesis. This thesis proposes a surge arrester installation strategy for the overhead transmission line lightning protection. In order to determine the most efficient surge arrester configuration of transmission line, the entire transmission line is divided into several line sections according to the footing resistance of its towers. A line section consists of the towers which have similar footing resistance. Two different designs are considered for transmission line lightning protection, they include: equip different number of surge arrester on selected phase of every tower, equip surge arresters on all phases of selected towers. By varying the number of the towers or the number of phases needs to be equipped with surge arresters, the threshold voltage for line insulator flashover is used to evaluate different surge arrester installation configurations. The way to determine the optimal surge arresters configuration for each line section is then introduced in this thesis. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Electrical Engineering 2018

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:22:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2012-05-24Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:09:46Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 spozitojunior_js_me_ilha.pdf: 739577 bytes, checksum: 774270e35ff8542bb48191719879dc4a (MD5) / Este estudo é um levantamento de artigos e publicações sobre os diversos sistemas de aterramento existentes. Os sistemas de aterramento estão diretamente ligados à proteção das instalações de subestações e equipamentos empregados na geração, transmissão e distribuição de energia elétrica que por ocasião das descargas atmosféricas diretas ou por tensões induzidas por campos eletromagnéticos decorrentes, possam ser prejudicados. O Método propõe o estudo de um sistema de aterramento, com cabo contrapeso, utilizando abordagem por linhas de transmissão representada por uma cascata de circuitos π, analisado e simulado pelo “Software Matlab”. Utilizou-se a simulação com o emprego de programa no Matlab para linhas de transmissão de energia elétrica, a primeira com comprimento de dez mil metros e outra com oitenta metros, utilizada como referencial na comparação das respostas aos sinais de entrada aplicados nos circuitos π simulando o cabo contrapeso com seus componentes representado pelos parâmetros elétricos. Através de variação no parâmetro resistividade do solo comparou-se os resultados mostrados nos gráficos da tensão elétrica na terminação do cabo contrapeso, simulado como uma linha de transmissão com terminação em aberto. Como analise adicional em termos de segurança foi implementado no programa a analise das tensões elétricas ao longo do cabo contrapeso, excitado por aplicação de sinais de tensão elétrica e de corrente elétrica estabelecendo a comparação entre os potenciais elétricos sobre o solo em valores máximos que podem afetar seres vivos / This study is a survey of articles and publications on the various existing grounding systems. The grounding systems are directly linked to the protection of substation facilities and equipment used in the generation, transmission and distribution of electric power, due to induced voltages by lightning’s generating electromagnetic fields . The method proposed in this study, about a grounding system made with a buried cable using the approach by transmission lines method, represented by a cascade of π circuits analyzed and simulated by Matlab Software. The simulation with the Matlab program on transmission lines of electricity, one ten thousand meters in length and another eighty meters respectively, to serve as a reference in comparison between responses to input signals applied to the cable simulated by π circuit employing the parameters involved. Through variation in the soil resistivity parameter, the results are shown in the graphs of voltage in the termination of the grounding cable, simulated as an open line at end. As further analysis in terms of safety, was implemented the analysis of the voltages along the cable, by applying voltage signals and current to check the electrical potentials on the ground, the maximum values that affect persons

The proponents of non-conventional lightning protection devices claim that these devices are superior to the conventional Franklin Rod. Lack of systematic study and insufficient field data make it difficult to compare the non-conventional lightning protection devices with the conventional ones. Previously, the performance of various air terminals was studied by comparing the emission current through various dissipation devices in the MSU High Voltage Laboratory. The study of emission current from the air terminals gives an idea about the space charge developing over them. However, it does not show the behavior of air terminals to attract or repel lightning strikes. The present study presents the measurements of critical flashover (CFO) voltage of the air terminals. The CFO voltage shows the ability of an air terminal to attract or reduce the chance of lightning strike to the protected object.

In India, the natural energy resources (thermal and hydro) are unevenly distributed and are mostly present in the remote areas and the load centers are distributed across various regions of the country. Therefore high voltage lines have become necessary for the devel-opment of large interconnected power networks and for the reliable and economic transfer of power. The increase in electric power demand due to the electric load growth has lead to the expansion of the transmission systems to ultra high voltage levels. Presently, Ultra High Voltage (UHV) power transmission lines are being built to transfer large electric power to distant load centers from the generating stations. Increasing the line voltage increases the surge impedance loading, stability and the thermal capacity of the line. Lightning is one of the major causes for the line outages and interruptions of UHV power lines. A lightning strike generates a very large voltage leading to insulator puncture, melting, burning and pitting of conductors and the supporting hardware. Lightning can lead to transient over-voltages thus leading to ash-over in the power transmission lines which are dangerous for the power equipments as well as for the human beings working in the vicinity. Ground wires are used for the protection of overhead power transmission lines against a lightning stroke. The overhead ground wires are installed such that the lightning attaches to it and shunts the lightning current to the ground through the tower, thus protecting the phase conductors. Shielding failure happens when the lightning strikes the phase conductor instead of the ground wires. Lightning shielding failure is a major con-cern in UHV lines due to their large height, very high operating voltage and wide exposure area of the phase conductors. The lightning over-voltages injected on the phase conductor (shielding failure) nally reaches the substation causing serious threat to the substation components and can lead to temporary or permanent outage of the power transmission system. There have been cases of very high shielding failure ash-overs of UHV lines and thus lightning attachment to power transmission lines need to be studied in detail to reduce the power system line outages. Several models such as electro-geometric model (EGM) and leader progression model (LPM) have been developed to study the shielding failure of power transmission lines. EGM has been extensively used to obtain lightning attachment to power transmission lines but in recent years it is seen that EGM is unable to accurately predict the lightning attach-ment to UHVAC lines. The shielding failure rates obtained by EGM does not match with the observed shielding failure rate for UHV lines. For this reason LPM is considered to obtain lightning attachment to UHV lines but LPM in its initial stage do not deal with the detailed physics of the upward leader inception, i.e., corona inception and unstable as well as stable upward leader inception from the object on the ground. In this thesis a model for the lightning attachment has been developed based on the present knowledge of the lightning physics. The thesis mainly focuses on the modelling of upward leader inception and propagation for lightning attachment to UHV power trans-mission lines. Upward leader inception is modeled based on the corona charge present near the conductor region and the upward leader propagation model is based on the correlation between the lightning induced voltage on the conductor and the voltage drop along the upward leader channel. The present model considers corona inception and modelling of unstable and stable upward leader inception from the ground object for the analysis of the lightning attachment process. The upward leader inception model developed is compared with the previous inception models and the results obtained using the present and previous models are found to be comparable. Lightning striking distances ( nal jump) for various lightning return stroke current were computed for di erent conductor heights using present lightning attachment model. It is seen that the striking distance increases with the increase in lightning re-turn stroke current and increases with increase in conductor heights. The striking distance computed using the present model matches with the value calculated using the equation proposed by the IEEE working group for the applicable conductor heights of up to 8 m. The in uence of the conductor operating voltage, cloud electric eld, lightning down-ward leader lateral distance, conductor length, transmission line tower and conductor sag on the upward lightning leader inception are analysed and reported in the thesis. It is found that the lightning attraction to power transmission line increases with increase in conductor positive operating voltage and decreases with increase in conductor negative op-erating voltage. The presence of transmission line tower reduces the lightning attachment to the conductor lines and the probability of lightning strike decreases with the increase in downward leader lateral distance from the conductor lines. The present lightning attachment model is applied to study the shielding failure of UHV power transmission lines rated for 1200 kV ac (delta and horizontal con guration) and for 800 kV dc (with and without a dedicated metallic return conductor) and thereby the lightning shielding failure ash-over rate is computed for the UHV power transmission lines. It is seen that the lightning shielding rate for UHV power transmission lines depend on the lateral distance of the downward leader channel, instantaneous 50 Hz voltage on the transmission line conductor, height of the transmission line conductor, induced voltages on the conductor and the lightning return stroke current.

<p>In order to achieve better lightning protection and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements, the needs for a proper grounding system and the knowledge of its transient behaviour become crucial. </p><p>The present work is focused towards developing engineering models for transient analysis of grounding system with sufficient accuracy and simplicity for lightning studies. Firstly, the conventional uniform transmission line approach for a single grounding conductor is modified and extended to grounding grids. Secondly, in order to overcome the drawbacks of all the existing transmission line approaches, for the first time, a non-uniform transmission line approach is developed for modelling the transient behaviour of different types of grounding systems. The important feature of such an approach is in its capability to include the electromagnetic couplings between different parts of the grounding system using space and time dependent per-unit length parameters.</p><p>High voltages and currents induced in the grounding systems due to lightning always produce ionization in the soil. This phenomenon should be included during the transient analysis of grounding systems. In the present work, an improved soil ionization model including residual resistivity in ionization region is developed. The fact that there exists residual resistivity in ionization region (7 % of the original soil resistivity) can be proved by the experiments reported in the literature and the experiments carried out at the high voltage lab of Uppsala University. The advantage of including residual resistivity is that the beneficial influence of soil ionization in reducing the potential rise of grounding system will not be overestimated, especially in high resistivity soil.</p><p>Finally, the transmission line approaches are adopted for studying the response of grounding systems due to lightning for different applications. These are, influence of soil parameters on the transient behaviour of grounding systems, transient analysis of grounding structures in stratified soils, investigation of the validity of existing definitions for effective length/area of different grounding structures, current distribution in the shields of under ground cables associated with communication tower, and influence of insulator flashover and soil ionization around the pole footing on surge propagation in Swedish railway system.</p>

In order to achieve better lightning protection and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements, the needs for a proper grounding system and the knowledge of its transient behaviour become crucial. The present work is focused towards developing engineering models for transient analysis of grounding system with sufficient accuracy and simplicity for lightning studies. Firstly, the conventional uniform transmission line approach for a single grounding conductor is modified and extended to grounding grids. Secondly, in order to overcome the drawbacks of all the existing transmission line approaches, for the first time, a non-uniform transmission line approach is developed for modelling the transient behaviour of different types of grounding systems. The important feature of such an approach is in its capability to include the electromagnetic couplings between different parts of the grounding system using space and time dependent per-unit length parameters. High voltages and currents induced in the grounding systems due to lightning always produce ionization in the soil. This phenomenon should be included during the transient analysis of grounding systems. In the present work, an improved soil ionization model including residual resistivity in ionization region is developed. The fact that there exists residual resistivity in ionization region (7 % of the original soil resistivity) can be proved by the experiments reported in the literature and the experiments carried out at the high voltage lab of Uppsala University. The advantage of including residual resistivity is that the beneficial influence of soil ionization in reducing the potential rise of grounding system will not be overestimated, especially in high resistivity soil. Finally, the transmission line approaches are adopted for studying the response of grounding systems due to lightning for different applications. These are, influence of soil parameters on the transient behaviour of grounding systems, transient analysis of grounding structures in stratified soils, investigation of the validity of existing definitions for effective length/area of different grounding structures, current distribution in the shields of under ground cables associated with communication tower, and influence of insulator flashover and soil ionization around the pole footing on surge propagation in Swedish railway system.

Οι πύργοι ελέγχου αεροδρομίων αποτελούν βασικό συστατικό για την ομαλή και συνεχή εξυπηρέτηση των πτήσεων πολιτικών και στρατιωτικών αεροσκαφών. Βρίσκονται εγκατεστημένοι σε κάθε αεροδρόμιο και αποτελούν το υψηλότερο κτίριο στο περιβάλλοντα χώρο, πράγμα που δικαιολογεί και τον μεγάλο αριθμό κεραυνικών πληγμάτων που μπορούν να δεχτούν. Σκοπός αυτής της διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η μελέτη ενός συστήματος αντικεραυνικής προστασίας που βρίσκεται εγκατεστημένο σε έναν πύργο ελέγχου αεροδρομίου. Η απόδοση του συστήματος αντικεραυνικής προστασίας διαδραματίζει σημαντικό ρόλο στην αποτελεσματική λειτουργία του πύργου ελέγχου και στη γενικότερη αποτελεσματική λειτουργία του αερολιμένα. Με τη χρήση του προγράμματος εξομοίωσης αναλογικών και ψηφιακών κυκλωμάτων Orcad-Pspice, προσομοιώνεται το σύστημα αντικεραυνικής προστασίας, με βάση τον πύργο ελέγχου που του διεθνούς αερολιμένα Ελ. Βενιζέλος, μετράται το δυναμικό στη βάση του πύργου ελέγχου και τα ρεύματα στους αγωγούς καθόδου, όταν κεραυνός πλήττει το σύστημα συλλεκτήριων αγωγών. / The airport traffic control towers are a key component for the smooth and continuous service flights for both political and military aircraft. They are located at each airport and are the highest building in the surroundings, which justifies the number of lightning strikes that accepts. The purpose of this thesis is the study of a lightning protection system which is installed in an airport control tower. The efficiency of the lightning protection system constitute an important role in the effective operation of the control tower and the overall efficient operation of the airport. Using the analog and digital circuits simulation program Orcad-Pspice, the lightning protection system simulated , based on the control tower to the International airport Eleftherios Venizelos , the measured potential at the base of the control tower and the currents in the downconductors , when lightning strikes the collectors system

No description available.

Lightning is a natural phenomenon involving transient high current discharge in the atmosphere. Cloud-to-ground lightning, wherein the discharge occurs between the cloud and the ground is quite hazardous to systems on the ground. Apart from threat to life, the devastating effects of lightning can be mainly of thermal, mechanical and electromagnetic origin. Many a times, thermal and electromagnetic effects are of main concern. A direct hit, wherein the system under consideration becomes a part of the lightning path, could be quite catastrophic to many vulnerable systems like oil rigs, chemical factories, missile/satellite launch pads. From the safety and operational point of view, lightning is of serious concern for electrical systems including transmission lines and substations, nuclear power stations, telecommunication station and data banks. Lightning cannot be avoided, however, by employing a suitable Lightning Protection System (LPS), adequate protection against a direct hit can be provided to ground based systems. A typical lightning protection system involves: 1) Air termination network, which is responsible for stroke interception, 2) Down conductor system, which provides to the stroke current a minimal impedance path to the ground and 3) Earth termination network, for safe dissipation of current into the ground. Similarly, for the indirect effects, which are basically of electromagnetic origin, suitable protection can be designed. The key factors in a protective action involve interception of the dangerous strokes, minimization of the consequential potential rise on down conductors, as well as, at earth termination and keeping the field in the protective volume within an acceptable level. The last aspect can be generally categorized into secondary level protection. For critical systems, the lightning protection system is generally isolated from it. In such designs, potential rise on LPS governs the physical isolation required between the protected and protection system. For a given level of bypass strokes, cost of the LPS increases with the amount of physical separation employed. All most all of the earlier works have concentrated on lightning surge response of power transmission line towers. Apart from their relatively moderate heights, the intention was to arrive at a model, which can be incorporated in circuit simulation software like EMTP. Consequently, they envisage or approximate the mode of propagation to be TEM. In reality, for down conductors of height greater than say 30 m, only TM mode prevails during the initial critical time period. Hence the earlier models cannot be extended to general lightning protection schemes and for down conductor of larger lengths. Only limited literature seems to be available on the characteristics of general down conductor configurations. The problem in hand is very important and some serious research efforts are very much essential. In view of the above, the present work aims to evaluate the rise in potential as well as current injected into the soil at the base for: (i) practical range of down conductor configurations involving single down conductor (with height exceeding 30 m) and (ii) pertinent values of stroke current parameters. The protection schemes considered are isolated vertical down conductor, isolated tower (both square and triangular cross-section) and, tower with insulated lightning mast carrying ground wires. The parameters under consideration are: (i) height and cross section for the down conductor, (ii) clearance between the down conductor and the protected system, (iii) channel geometry, wherein only inclination is to be considered, (iv) velocity of current along the channel and (v) wave shape and rise time for the stroke current. For the evaluation of lightning surge response of transmission line towers, many theoretical and experimental approaches are found in the literature. However, works considering the TM mode of current propagation is relatively limited. In that both experimental and theoretical approaches have been adopted. Theoretical approach invariably adopted numerical field computation in frequency domain using Numerical Electromagnetic code (NEC-2). Fourier Transform techniques are employed to extract the time domain quantities. This approach is very economical, free from experimental errors and least time consuming. Hence it is selected for the present work. However, there are certain limitations in this approach. In NEC simulation, there is a restriction on the size and the arrangement of individual elements. Therefore, although fairly complex tower structures can be simulated, some simplification in the geometry is unavoidable. Such an approximation has been reported to cause insignificant error. NEC is not accurate for calculations in low frequency regime. But in the present work, the initial time regime is of concern wherein the high frequency components dominate. Therefore the above said limitation is not of any serious concern. In order to validate the approach, potential rise is computed for 120 m tall cylindrical down conductor and tower. Results are compared favorably with earlier works, which are based on potential lead wire method. A careful re-look into the ’potential rise’ on the down conductors reveal several things. The electric field in the region between the protection system and protected system is the root cause for the breakdown/flashover. For a given geometry, the integral of the electric field along the shortest path between the two systems must be representing the overall stress on the air gap. Further, for the later time periods, this integral coincides with the well-known quasi-static potential. All the available data and models for breakdown of long air gaps are basically in terms of this quasi-static potential. In view of this, the above path integral is defined as ’equivalent potential rise’ (which will be hereafter termed as ’potential rise’), and taken as the index for surge response. Further, observation of the computed spatio-temporal radial electric field around the down conductor reveals some additional features, which are not common in the quasi-static regime. Electric field reverses its polarity in space, which is due to the opposite current flowing in the lightning channel. Therefore, ’potential rise’, which is taken as the representative for the dielectric stress on the air, should not be evaluated for larger distances. Considering this and noting that the protected system generally lies well within a distance of 50% of the H, height of the down conductor, potential rise is evaluated by integrating electric field within this distance (12.5%H, 25%H, 50%H). Three heights (100%H, 75%H, 50%H) are considered for the evaluation of the potential. The influences of various down conductor and lightning channel parameters are analyzed. Finally vertical channel with full velocity for current propagation is arrived for the investigations. Also, the influence of neighboring conducting objects is briefly studied. It is argued that it needs to be ignored for the general study. Analysis is carried out for a range of down conductor configurations of heights ranging from 45 m to 120 m. Cylindrical down conductor is selected for the detailed study on the overall characteristics and its dependency on pertinent parameters. The characteristics of potential rise are found to be significantly different from that given by the commonly employed uniform transmission line model. In the regime of very fast front currents, down conductor of comparable heights have comparable potential rise. For the larger time to crest, behavior tends more to wards that for quasi-static regime. The dependency of the potential rise on radius of the down conductor seems to be logarithmic in nature. Surge response of isolated towers of both square and triangular cross sections is studied for heights ranging from 45 m to 120 m. The overall characteristics are found to be similar to cylindrical down conductor. Dispersive propagation is found to exist on towers. As a result, the base currents are slightly lower and potential rise exhibits less oscillations. Data curves on potential rise at three different heights and for three different spatial extents are generated for the range of down conductor heights with rise time of the stroke current as the variable. Several interesting observations have been made. Next the investigation is taken up for the insulated mast scheme. The parameters of the study are taken as the number of ground wires, grounding location of ground wires and length of the insulation cylinder. Potential across the insulation, tower base currents, and ground wire end currents are deduced. The basic characteristics of the potential rise are shown to be quite similar to that for the transmission line. For fast front currents the temporal variation is bipolar with a smooth decay. In other words, oscillations are sustained for considerably longer duration. Voltage stress across the insulation surface for one ground wire design is found to be higher by 1.4 - 2.4 times than that for isolated tower. The highest amplification of the ground end current, which occurs for fast front currents, is about 1.8 times. Potential difference across the insulation for two-ground wire design is higher by a factor of 1.3 - 1.85 than that for isolated tower. For the design with four ground wires, potential across the insulation is comparable with that for the tower. However, the mechanical strength of the insulating support should also be considered in the selection of number of ground wires. There exists, especially for fast front strokes, significant induction to the supporting tower. The height of the insulation seems to possess no appreciable influence on the potential rise and base currents. Several issues need to be considered before selecting this design. The contribution made by the present work can be summarized as follows. It basically deals with lightning surge response of isolated down conductors of height in the range 45 - 120 m. The configurations considered are, cylindrical down conductor, tower with both square and triangular cross section and insulated mast scheme. It makes a careful study on the ’potential rise’ on down conductors and a suitable definition for the same is proposed. Basic characteristics of potential rise and ground end currents are studied for the above-mentioned designs. Their salient features are enumerated. For the towers, design data curves are provided for relevant range of stroke current rise time. The issues that need to be considered in the insulated mast scheme are discussed along with the data on potential rise and base currents. The findings of this work are believed to be very useful for the design of lightning protection scheme involving isolated down conductor. Further the results are useful in analyzing the consequential lightning generated threat of being close to tall towers.

Σε αυτή τη διπλωματική εργασία γίνεται μελέτη του δικτύου διανομής και των σφαλμάτων που συμβαίνουν στις γραμμές μεταφοράς. Τα σφάλματα αναφέρονται σε ένα χρονικό διάστημα 15 ετών, από το 1989 ως το 2003 και καλύπτουν 35 γραμμές της Δυτικής Ελλάδας. Στη συνέχεια γίνεται επεξεργασία των δεδομένων και ταξινόμηση τους, ανάλογα με το έτος, την γραμμή μεταφοράς και το αίτιο που προκάλεσε το σφάλμα. Αναλυτικότερα, στο 1ο κεφάλαιο της διπλωματικής εργασίας γίνεται: - γενική ανάλυση των στοιχείων μιας γραμμής μεταφοράς. - συνοπτική παρουσίαση των αγωγών, των μονωτήρων, των μετασχηματιστών και των πυλώνων που χρησιμοποιούνται για τη λειτουργία μιας γραμμής μεταφοράς. - κατηγοριοποίηση των εναέριων γραμμών μεταφοράς ανάλογα με το μήκος τους. Επίσης, αναφέρονται οι απαιτήσεις των γραμμών μεταφοράς αλλά και οι τύποι που υπάρχουν. Τέλος, αναπτύσσεται διεξοδικότερα ο ρόλος που παίζει η διαδρομή της γραμμής στην αντικεραυνική συμπεριφορά. Στο 2ο κεφάλαιο γίνεται σύντομη αναφορά στο κλίμα της Ελλάδας, στην κεραυνική συχνότητα και σε βασικά χαρακτηριστικά των γραμμών και των πυλώνων στο υπό εξέταση δίκτυο. Στη συνέχεια, παρατίθενται κάποια τεχνικά στοιχεία του συστήματος μεταφοράς, όπως το πλήθος των εναέριων, υπόγειων και υποβρύχιων γραμμών μεταφοράς και κάποια βασικά μεγέθη του δικτύου ηλεκτρισμού. Τέλος τα χαρακτηριστικά του δικτύου είναι μια ευγενική παραχώρηση της Δ.Ε.Η. όπως βέβαια και όλα τα στοιχειά που εξετάζουμε. Το 3ο κεφάλαιο αναφέρεται στον εντοπισμό σφαλμάτων και αφιερώνεται σε μια γενική θεώρηση της λογική και της χρησιμότητας του εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων. Στο κεφάλαιο αυτό γίνεται: - ιστορική αναδρομή για τη συγκεκριμένη θεωρία και παρουσιάζονται συνοπτικά τα πλεονεκτήματα της. - μικρή αναφορά στα είδη σφαλμάτων που συμβαίνουν στους αγωγούς. - παρουσίαση πλεονεκτημάτων του “fault locator”. - αναφορά των μεθόδων εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων. Στο 4ο κεφάλαιο αναφέρονται τα είδη σφαλμάτων(χωρίζονται σε κατηγορίες με βάση τη χρονική τους διάρκεια και τις επιπτώσεις αυτών στο δίκτυο) που παρουσιάζονται στις γραμμές και γίνεται επεξεργασία αυτών. Οι κατηγορίες των σφαλμάτων είναι: - Παροδικά - Παραμένοντα - Μόνιμα Τα κριτήρια κατηγοριοποίησης είναι η διάρκεια των σφαλμάτων και το ύψος της ζημιάς που προκαλούν. Βέβαια οι δυο αυτές ποσότητες είναι αλληλένδετες και ανάλογες. Μια ζημιά που θα καταστρέψει παραδείγματος χάρη έναν πυλώνα θα διαρκέσει ως βλάβη, στην καλύτερη , περίπτωση μερικές μέρες. Έτσι τα παροδικά σφάλματα διαρκούν το πολύ μερικά δευτερόλεπτα και το δίκτυο στο οποίο εμφανίζεται το σφάλμα επανέρχεται σε λειτουργία από μόνο του, δίχως την ανάγκη παρέμβασης. Τα μόνιμα σφάλματα είναι τα σοβαρότερα και τα πλέον απευκταία. Απαιτούν την παρέμβαση συνεργείου της Δ.Ε.Η. στη συντριπτική πλειονότητα των περιπτώσεων τους. Τα παροδικά είναι τα σφάλματα με χαρακτηριστικά κάπου ενδιάμεσα των δυο προηγούμενων κατηγοριών. Στο 5ο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα αιτία που προκαλούν τα σφάλματα στις γραμμές. Η πλειονότητα των σφαλμάτων προκαλείται εξαιτίας κακών ατμοσφαιρικών συνθηκών. Με τον όρο αυτό στη συγκεκριμένη περίπτωση εννοούμε κυρίως τα κεραυνικά πλήγματα πάνω σε μια γραμμή ή πολύ κοντά σε αυτή. Αρκετά πιο σπάνια μπορεί να προκαλέσει σοβαρό σφάλμα σε μια γραμμή ο δυνατός αέρας. Γίνεται, επίσης, ταξινόμηση σε πίνακες, ακολουθούμενα από διαγράμματα, των σφαλμάτων από το 1989 ως το 2003 ανάλογα με την γραμμή μεταφοράς και τον υποσταθμό που εμφανίστηκαν. Τέλος, στο 6ο κεφάλαιο γίνεται: - αναφορά της ανάγκης κατασκευής ενός ΣΑΠ (Σύστημα Αντικεραυνικής Προστασίας) - αναφορά σε ορισμούς που αφορούν ένα ΣΑΠ - αναφορά στο σχεδιασμό ενός ΣΑΠ - παρουσίαση διάφορων μεθόδων προστασίας από κεραυνούς, που όπως αναλύθηκε είναι ένα από τα βασικότερα αίτια πρόκλησης σφαλμάτων - ανάλυση της συχνότητας των κεραυνών και πόσο συχνά πλήττουν τις γραμμές μεταφοράς - παρουσίαση μεθόδων υπολογισμού σφαλμάτων - θεωρητικός υπολογισμός σφαλμάτων για τις γραμμές R-11 και R-23. / This diploma thesis studies the transmission network and the faults that happened on the transmission lines. The faults referred to an interval of 15 years, between years 1989 and 2003 and they are about 35 transmission lines of Western Greece. Also, there is a treatment and a clarification of the data according to the year, the transmission line and the reason that caused the fault. Specifically, in the first chapter of the diplomatic there is: - a general analysis of the data transmission lines. - a summary of the actions of insulators, transformers and posts used in the operation of a transmission line. - a classification of overhead transmission lines according to their length. Also, there is a reference of the requirements of transmission lines and the types of them. Finally, is developed more extensively the role that has the path of the line (routing) in the protection of lines of high voltage. In the second chapter follows short report in the climate of Greece, in the thunder frequency and in basic characteristics of lines and pylons in the network under review. After that, there are the technical date of the transmission system, such as the amount of airspace, underground and underwater transmission lines and some key figures of electricity network. Finally the characteristics of network are a polite concession of Δ.Ε.Η. as of course and the data that we examine. The third chapter referred to debug devoted to an overview about the logic and usefulness of the fault location. In this chapter: - originally presented a history that had to accept the theory and summarizes the advantages - there is also a small reference to the types of faults that occur in the ducts - a summary of advantages of “fault locator” - reference to the methods of faults locating. In the fourth chapter are reported the types of faults (are separated in categories with base their time duration and the repercussions of these in the network) that are presented in the lines and takes place treatment of these. The categories of faults are: - Transitory - Remaining - Permanently The criteria of categorization are the duration of faults and the height of damage that they cause. Of course these two quantities are interrelated and proportional. A damage that will destroy for example pylon will last as damage, in better, case certain days. Thus the transitory faults lasts at maximum certain seconds and the network in which is presented the fault is back on line on his own, without the need of intervention. The permanent faults are most serious. They require the intervention of repair crew of Δ.Ε.Η. in the overwhelming majority of their cases. Transitory are the faults with characteristically somewhere in-between the two previous categories. In the fifth chapter is presented the reason that cause the faults in the lines. The majority of faults are caused because of the bad atmospheric conditions. With this term in the particular case we mainly mean the thunder strokes on a line or a lot near it. Enough more seldom it can cause serious fault in a line the strong air wind. There is, also, a clarification in tables (with the corresponding charts) of the faults between years 1989 and 2003 depending on the transmission line and the substation they took place. Finally, in the sixth chapter there is: - a reference to the construction need of lightning protection system (LPS) - a reference to definitions about the LPS - a reference to the designing of LPS - a presentation of several methods of protection from lightning, which is one of the main reasons faults. - an analysis of lightning frequency and how often they strike the transmission lines. - a presentation of methods of faults calculation - A theoretical calculation of faults in transmission lines R-11 and R-23.