Have you ever heard a song that hasn’t played in years, and immediately recognize it? What cognitive processes determine this, and why does it seemingly happen to everyone? Using the Expectancy Theory of Music (Meyer, 1965) a working explanation for the possibility of why such strange phenomena exists is proposed. Based on expectancy, words and melody are processed together, and sung words are treated as part of the expected whole. In three experiments, memory was tested using same- different task. Each experiments investigates a different level of memory. Taking into account systematic uncertainty and the violation of expectancy when an unexpected appears, these experiments were able to be analyzed and studied in regards to their effects on memory. College students from the Claremont Colleges are to be randomly selected for this experiment. Findings should show a consistent interaction between melody and vocal sequences throughout each experiment.

The ability to memorize and recognize edible prey from inedible prey is essential for an individuals survival. Many species use aposematic signals for their defense. These are most often represented by distinctive colors or contrast patterns. The aim of this study was to find out in which time the memory consolidation for aposematic pray is achieved and if color or pattern increase its memorability. The choosen model species was the Great tit (Parus major). The comparision was done between handreared naïve birds and wild-caught adults of different age and sex. During the discriminatory task of consolidation experiment, birds were simultaneously presented with palatable and unpalatable prey in the form of paper dummies of bugs, differing in color (red versus green). The birds were divided into three groups with a different interval (0, 1 or 3 hours) for consolidation. The results of consolidation test show that adult birds were more successfull in solving the task than juvenile birds. The only difference between the experimental groups was that the group with one-hour interval achieved better results than other groups. The effect of color of palatable and unpalatable prey on discrimination learning was also found only in adults. Memorability of warning signals was tested using paper bugs of...

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De nombreuses recherches montrent que les adultes résolvent de simples problèmes arithmétiques plus ou moins exclusivement par récupération de la réponse dans un réseau d’associations stockées en mémoire à long terme (Ashcraft, 1992 ; 1995 ; Campbell, 1995). Il est admis que les performances arithmétiques des jeunes enfants sont basées sur le comptage ou d’autres stratégies procédurales qui sont peu à peu remplacées par la récupération directe en mémoire (Barrouillet & Fayol, 1998). Ces premiers résultats ont été rapportés par Groen et Parkman (1972) en étudiant les temps de résolution. Mais moyenner des temps de latence d’essais impliquant différentes procédures peut conduire à des conclusions erronées sur la façon dont les problèmes sont résolus. D’autres auteurs ont préféré la méthode des protocoles verbaux. Cependant Kirk et Ashcraft (2001) remettent en question ce protocole. Nous proposons un nouveau paradigme pour faire la lumière sur la façon dont des problèmes additifs, soustractifs et multiplicatifs sont résolus par les adultes et les enfants. Ce paradigme tire avantage du fait que les procédures de calcul dégradent les traces en mémoire des opérandes impliquées dans les calculs (Thevenot, Barrouillet & Fayol, 2001). Le temps nécessaire à l’algorithme pour parvenir à la réponse et son coût cognitif entraînent une réduction du niveau d’activation des opérandes. Cette baisse d’activation résulte d’un phénomène de déclin mémoriel qui entraîne une détérioration des traces en mémoire (Towse & Hitch, 1995 ; Towse, Hitch & Hutton, 1998) et de l’activation concurrente de résultats transitoires provoquant un partage attentionnel entre les opérandes, leurs composantes et les résultats intermédiaires nécessaires pour arriver à la solution (Anderson, 1993). Par conséquent, lorsque l’algorithme aboutit à la réponse les traces des opérandes sont dégradées et la récupération en mémoire est difficile. Ce phénomène devrait être plus prononcé pour les grands nombres car parvenir au résultat nécessite plus d’étapes et plus de temps. En contrastant la difficulté rencontrée par des adultes pour reconnaître des opérandes après leur implication soit dans une opération arithmétique (addition, soustraction ou multiplication) soit dans une comparaison (qui ne nécessite aucune décomposition) avec un troisième nombre, nous pourrons déterminer si l’opération a été résolue par procédure algorithmique. Si la difficulté est la même dans les deux conditions, l’opération aura été résolue par récupération, une telle activité ne nécessite pas la décomposition des opérandes / Numerous studies show that adults solve simple arithmetic problems more or less exclusively by retrieval the response in a network of associations stored in long-term memory (Ashcraft, 1992, 1995 and Campbell, 1995). It is recognized that the arithmetic performance of young children are based on counting or other procedural strategies that are gradually replaced by direct memory retrieval (Barrouillet & Fayol, 1998). These first results were reported by Groen and Parkman (1972) by studying the resolution time. But average latency of trials involving different procedures can lead to erroneous conclusions about how problems are solved. Other authors have preferred the method of verbal reports. But Kirk and Ashcraft (2001) question this paradigm. We propose a new paradigm to shed light on how the addition problems, subtraction and multiplication are resolved by adults and children. This paradigm takes advantage of the fact that algorithmic computation degrades the memory traces of the operands involved in the calculation (Thevenot, Barrouillet, & Fayol, 2001). The time needed by the algorithm to reach the answer and its cognitive cost lead to a reduction in the level of activation of the operands. This decrease in activation would result both from a memory decay phenomenon, which damages memory traces (Towse & Hitch, 1995; Towse, Hitch & Hutton, 1998) and from the necessary concurrent activation of transitory results, which induces a sharing of the attentional resources between the operands, their components and the intermediate results necessary to be reached to solve the problem (Anderson, 1993). Therefore, when the algorithm leads to the response, traces of the operands are degraded and retrieval the operand in memory is more difficult. This phenomenon should be more pronounced for large numbers since arriving at the result requires more steps and more time. Thus, contrasting the relative difficulty that adults or children encounter in recognizing operands after either their involvement in an arithmetic problem or their simple comparison with a third number can allow us to determine if the arithmetic problem has been solved by an algorithmic procedure or by retrieval of the result from memory: If operands are more difficult to recognize after the operation than after their comparison, we can assume that an algorithmic procedure has been used. On the contrary, if the difficulty is the same in both conditions, then the operation has most probably been solved by retrieval, a fast activity that does not imply the decomposition of the operands

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Mississippi State University. Department of Psychology. / Title from title screen. Includes bibliographical references.

Cognitive Event-Related Potential (ERP) recordings have been used to study the neurophysiological correlates of recognition memory. Previous ERP research has demonstrated that on tasks of recognition memory, Old items elicit ERP responses that are more positive in electrical amplitude than the ERP responses elicited by New items, commonly referred to as ERP Old/New positivity effects. ERP Old/New positivity effects have been used to make inferences about cognitive processes mediating recognition memory, such as the early frontal Old/New positivity effect that has been associated with familiarity and the late parietal Old/New positivity effect that has been associated with recollection. These effects have been demonstrated different types of stimuli and on different types of recognition memory tasks. However, a systematic comparison of ERP Old/New positivity effects across different recognition memory tasks is lacking, particularly with respect to Remote Long-term memory. This thesis asked how ERP Old/New positivity effects differ between tasks of Short-term, Recent Long-term, and Remote Long-term memory tasks for faces. Experiment 1 simulated the condition of limited overt communication skills by analyzing the brain responses to memory stimuli, regardless of the overt behavioural response from healthy, “honest” participants. Experiment 2 examined the ERP responses of healthy participants instructed to feign a memory impairment. ERP Old/New positivity effects similar to those described in the experimental ERP literature were observed on the Short-term and Remote Long-term memory tasks in both Experiments 1 and 2. However, response accuracy was lower than expected on the Recent Long-term task resulting in weak ERP results. A comparison of the ERP Old/New responses between the Honest Response (Experiment 1) and the Simulated Memory Malingering (Experiment 2) groups found that despite differing overt behavioural responses, the ERP Old/New responses remained similar. The results demonstrate a similar electrophysiological mechanism mediating Short-term, Recent Long-term, and Remote Long-term recognition memory ERP responses, despite the different neuroanatomical substrates that have been proposed these different types of memory. Although an improved measure of Recent Long-term memory is needed, the results of this thesis are promising and demonstrate that ERP recordings could provide an objective instrument for measuring recognition memory functioning in clinical settings.

Understanding the brain and its functions is achallenging undertaking. To facilitate this work, brain-inspiredtechnology may be used to examine cognitive phenomena to acertain extent, by replacing real biological brains with simulations.The aim of this project was to provide insights intohow different kinds of plasticity modulation affected long-termmemory recall through the use of a computational model. Aneural network was constructed based on the existing BayesianConfidence Propagation Neural Network (BCPNN) model andtrained with binary patterns representing memories acquiredover a lifetime. By varying network plasticity parameters forselected patterns and performing recall of “aging” memories,greater effects were observed in recall statistics for modulationearly in the lifetime in comparison with modulation of later ages.From the experiments conducted in this study it was possible toconclude that selective modulation of learning affected the longtermrecall of all memories in the simulation. / Att förstå hjärnan och alla dess funktionerär en stor utmaning. För att underlätta detta arbete kanhjärninspirerad teknologi i viss utsträckning användas för attstudera kognitiva fenomen, genom att ersätta biologiska hjärnormed simuleringar. Syftet med denna studie var att ge en insikt ihur olika typer av modulering av synaptisk plasticitet påverkadeett simulerat biologiskt långtidsminne genom användning av endatoriserad modell. Ett neuralt nätverk implementerat med eninlärningsregel av typen Bayesian Confidence Propagation NeuralNetwork (BCPNN) konstruerades och användes för att träna och återkalla binära mönster, representerande minnen förvärvadeunder en livstid. Nätverkets synaptiska plasticitet varierades underträning av utvalda mönster och därefter utfördes återkallningav “åldrade” minnen. Testerna påvisade effekt på nätverketsförmåga att korrekt återkalla lagrade minnen. Det visade sigäven att modulering utförd på tidiga simulerade åldrar jämförtmed modulering av senare åldrar under livstiden hade störrepåverkan på långtidsminnet. Från resultaten var det möjligtatt konstatera att selektiv plasticitetsmodulering under inlärningpåverkade nätverkets förmåga att korrekt återkalla samtligabinära mönster i simuleringen. / Kandidatexjobb i elektroteknik 2021, KTH, Stockholm

Dual-process models of recognition memory propose that recognition memory can be supported by either a general sense of familiarity or the recollection of the encoding context. One source of evidence supporting dual-process models comes from event-related potential (ERP) studies of recognition memory, which have identified distinct patterns of neural activity associated with familiarity and recollection (the mid frontal and left parietal old/new effects, respectively). In this thesis, dual-process accounts of recognition memory were investigated in a series of ERP studies using three categories of stimulus: previously unknown faces, famous faces, and names. For previously unknown faces, familiarity was associated with activity over posterior scalp electrodes while recollection was associated with topographically dissociable activity over anterior electrodes. These dissociable patterns of activity support dual-process models. However, the typical pattern of old/new effects was only observed for stimuli associated with pre-existing representations (i.e., names and famous faces), suggesting that the presence/absence of pre-existing representations may determine the particular retrieval processes that support recognition memory. Furthermore, recollection was associated with two different patterns of activity (anterior and left parietal effects), suggesting that recollection is not a homogenous process. Dual-process theories may represent an important starting point for investigating recognition memory, but neither familiarity nor recollection appear to be functionally homogenous processes when theorizing is constrained by the analysis of scalp recorded electrophysiological activity.

This thesis employed an integrated approach and investigated intra- and inter-individual differences relevant for normally hearing (NH) and hearing-impaired (HI) adults in native (Swedish) and non-native (English) languages in adverse listening conditions. The integrated approach encompassed the role of cognition as a focal point of interest as well as perceptualauditory and linguistic factors. Paper I examined the extent to which proficiency in a non-native language influenced native and non-native speech perception performance for NH listeners in noise maskers compared to native and non-native speech maskers. Working memory capacity in native and non-native languages and non-verbal intelligence were also assessed. The design of paper II was identical to that of paper I, however the participants in paper II had a hearingimpairment. The purpose of paper III was to assess how NH and HI listeners subjectively evaluated the perceived disturbance from the speech- and noise maskers in the native and nonnative languages. Paper IV examined how well native and non-native stories that were presented unmasked and masked with native and non-native speech were recalled by NH listeners. Paper IV further investigated the role of working memory capacity in the episodic long-term memory of story contents as well as proficiency in native and non-native languages. The results showed that generally, the speech maskers affected performance and perceived disturbance more than the noise maskers did. Regarding the non-native target language, interference from speech maskers in the dominant native language is taxing for speech perception performance, perceived disturbance and memory processes. However, large inter- individual variability between the listeners was observed. Part of this variability relates to non-native language proficiency. Perceptual and cognitive effort may hinder efficient long-term memory encoding, even when stimuli are appropriately identified at a perceptual level. A large working memory capacity (WMC) provides a better ability to suppress distractions and allocate processing resources to meet assigned objectives. The relatively large inter-individual differences in this thesis, require an individualized approach in clinical or educational settings when non-native persons or people with hearing impairment need to perceive and remember potentially vital information. Individua  differences in the very complex process of speech understanding and recall need to be further addressed by future studies. The relevance of cognitive factors and language proficiency provides opportunities for individuals who face difficulties to compensate using other abilities. / Avhandlingens övergripande syfte var att genom ett integrerat tillvägagångssätt undersöka mellan- och inom-individuella skillnader relevanta för normalhörande och hörselskadade vuxna i svenska och engelska språket under ogynnsamma lyssningsförhållanden. Med kognitiva faktorer i fokus, omfattade det integrerade tillvägagångssättet också perceptuella-auditiva och lingvistiska faktorer. Studie I undersökte i vilken utsträckning färdigheter i engelska inverkade på taluppfattning av ett modersmål och ett andra språk som var maskerat med brus jämfört med störande tal på svenska och engelska. Normalhörande vuxna deltog. Arbetsminneskapacitet på svenska och engelska liksom icke-verbal intelligens bedömdes också i studien. Designen i studie II var identisk med designen i studie I, förutom att personer med hörselnedsättning ingick som deltagare. Syftet med studie III var att bedöma hur normalhörande personer och personer med hörselnedsättning subjektivt utvärderade den upplevda störningen från tal- och brus på ett modersmål och ett andra språk. Studie IV undersökte hur väl normalhörande deltagare kom ihåg berättelser på svenska och engelska som presenterades omaskerade eller med störande tal på svenska eller engelska. Studie IV undersökte vidare  arbetsminneskapacitet och episodiskt långtidsminne av berättelsernas innehåll liksom också färdighet i svenska och engelska språket. Resultaten visade att generellt var maskeringseffekten större vid störande tal jämfört med andra bruskällor både vad avser taluppfattning såväl som upplevd störning. Vad det gäller det engelska språket som talsignal, är störning från det svenska modersmålet påfrestande för taluppfattning, upplevd störning såväl som för minnesprocesser. Dock har stor inter- och intra-individuell variation mellan deltagarna observerats. En del av denna variation avser engelska språkfärdigheter. Perceptuell och kognitiv påfrestning kan minska möjligheten till att säkra långsiktiga minnesprocesser även om ett stimuli var korrekt identifierat på en perceptuell nivå. En god arbetsminneskapacitet kan ge en bättre förmåga att undertrycka en distraktion och därmed fördela processresurserna för att nå de uppställda målen. De relativt stora inter-individuella skillnaderna i denna avhandling gör det angeläget med en individualiserad  tillämpning, kliniskt eller inom utbildningsmässiga områden när personer med hörselnedsättning eller personer med ett annat modersmål behöver uppfatta eller minnas potentiellt viktig information. De individuella skillnader som ligger bakom taluppfattning och minnesförmåga behöver utforskas vidare. Goda kognitiva förmågor och språkfärdigheter ger möjligheter för individer som möter svårigheter till att kompensera genom att använda dessa förmågor.

Les avantages liés à la formation musicale transfèrent au traitement du langage, et à certaines fonctions perceptives et cognitives. Nous examinons si cette formation facilite aussi l'apprentissage de mots nouveaux au long de la vie. Les enfants «musiciens» et les jeunes musiciens professionnels surpassent les participants de contrôle dans une série d’expériences, avec une plasticité cérébrale plus rapide, et une connectivité fonctionnelle plus forte, mesurées par électroencéphalographie. Les résultats des musiciens plus âgés sont moins clairs, suggérant un impact limité de la formation musicale sur le déclin cognitif. Enfin, les jeunes musiciens ont une meilleure mémoire à long terme des nouveaux mots, ce qui contribuerait à expliquer l’avantage observé. Ces effets de transfert de la formation musicale au niveau sémantique et de la mémoire à long terme révèlent l’importance des fonctions cognitives générales et ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives pour l’éducation et la rééducation. / Based on results evidencing music training-related advantages on speech processing, perceptive and cognitive functions, we examine whether music training facilitates novel word learning throughout the lifespan. We show that musically-trained children and young professional musicians outperform controls in a series of experiments, with faster brain plasticity and stronger functional connectivity, as measured by electroencephalography. By contrast, advantages for old adult musicians are less clear-cut, suggesting a limited impact of music training to counteract cognitive decline. Finally, young musicians show better long-term memory for novel words, which possibly contributes, along with better auditory perception and attention, to their advantage in word learning. By showing transfer effects from music training to semantic processing and long-term memory, results reveal the importance of domain-general cognitive functions and open new perspectives for education and rehabilitation.