Thesis (Ph. D.)--School of Pharmacy and Dept. of Chemistry. University of Missouri--Kansas City, 2008. / "A dissertation in pharmaceutical sciences and chemistry." Advisor: Ashim K. Mitra. Typescript. Vita. Description based on contents viewed Sept. 12, 2008; title from "catalog record" of the print edition. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 136-142). Online version of the print edition.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-08-11T12:39:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 4 license.txt: 1748 bytes, checksum: 8a4605be74aa9ea9d79846c1fba20a33 (MD5) marilia_oliveira_ipec_dout_2012.pdf: 2996736 bytes, checksum: f7004296a25067ba239182bc45af24e7 (MD5) 69282.pdf.txt: 258706 bytes, checksum: 11d919c86b7699b17405769f4c936f23 (MD5) 69282.pdf.jpg: 1438 bytes, checksum: 51e59c52b79e442b1ee1e65062e4d93b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-05-06 / Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. Instituto Nacional de Infectologia, Rio de Janeiro,RJ, Brasil / O uso de antirretrovirais (ARV) durante a gravidez é essencial para a prevenção da transmissão vertical do HIV, porém o impacto das alterações fisiológicas inerentes à gestação sobre a farmacocinética desses medicamentos e as possíveis implicações na eficácia e segurança dos esquemas profiláticos é pouco conhecido. O Lopinavir/r (LPV/r) é recomendado para uso nessa situação, mas a dose mais adequada para grávidas é controversa. O objetivo deste estudo é descrever a farmacocinética do LPV e do ritonavir(RTV) durante a gestação, comparando a dose padrão (dois comprimidos de 12/12 horas) com dose aumentada (três comprimidos de 12/12 horas) de LPV/r. Foi realizado estudo aberto, prospectivo, incluindo 60 voluntárias com infecção pelo HIV a partir de 14 semanas de gestação, selecionadas aleatoriamente (1:1) para receber uma das duas doses de LPV/r durante a gravidez, continuando a usar a dose padrão até seis semanas após o parto. Foram colhidas amostras de sangue nos segundo e terceiro trimestres da gravidez e no pós parto, além de sangue de cordão e materno no momento do parto, para avaliação da passagem transplacentáriados ARV A análise farmacocinética foi realizada por método de cromatografia líquida de alta performance (HPLC), com detecção por espectrometria de massa sequencial após ionização por electrospray de íons positivos (ESI-MS/MS). As pacientes que receberam dose padrão de LPV/r e que tiveram adesão ao tratamento apresentaram concentração mínima de LPV em média de 4,4, 4,3 e 6,1 mcg/mL nos segundo e terceiro trimestres da gravidez e no pós-parto, respectivamente, enquanto que as do grupo de dose aumentada tiveram valores de 7,9, 6,9 e 9,2 mcg/mL nos mesmos momentos. Apesar de a exposição ao LPV ter sido significativamente maior no segundo grupo, a dose padrão foi suficiente para fornecer níveis terapêuticos de LPV para vírus selvagem (1 mcg/mL) em todas as mulheres com adesão ao tratamento, exceto uma no terceiro trimestre da gravidez. Não atingiram níveis terapêuticos para vírus resistentes 50%, 37,5% e 25% das voluntárias em uso de dose padrão nos segundo e terceiro trimestres da gravidez e no pós-parto, respectivamente, enquanto que essa proporção foi de 0%, 15% e 0% no grupo de dose aumentada nos mesmos momentos. Após 12 semanas de tratamento e no pós parto todas as pacientes com adesão ao tratamento tinham carga viral do HIV indetectável e nenhum dos bebês que pôde ser avaliado (49/54) foi infectado. A dose padrão de LPV/r foi adequada para uso durante a gestação, sendo importante assegurar adesão ao tratamento e podendo-se considerar o uso de dose aumentada em casos de suspeita ou diagnóstico de infecçao por HIV com mutações de resistência / Antiretrovirals (ARV) use during pregnancy is critical for the prevention of HIV vertical transmission, however the impact of physiological alte rations inherent to pregnancy on the pharmacokinetic of these drugs, and the possible implications on the effectiveness and safety of t he prophylactic regimen are unknown. Lopinavir/r (LPV/r) use is recommended in this circumstance, but the appropriate dose for pregnant women is cont roversial. The objective of this study is to describe the pharmacokinet ic of LPV and ritonavir (RTV) during pregnancy, comparing the standard dose regimen (two tablets bid ) with LPV/r increased dose (three tablets bid ). An open, prospective study was conducted, including 60 volunteers with HIV in fection from 14 weeks of pregnancy, randomly selected (1: 1) to receive one of the two doses of LPV/r during pregnancy, and using the standard dose up to six weeks after childbirth. Blood samples were drawn in the second and third trimesters of the pregnancy, and after childbirth, in addition to umbilical cord and maternal blood at labor, for evaluation of ARV transplacental tr ansmission. The pharmacokinetic analysis was performed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), with spectrometry detection of sequential mass after ionization by positive ions electrospray (ESI-MS/MS). Patients who received LPV/r standard dose and that had good adherence to the treat ment presented LPV minimum concentration of 4.4, 4.3 and 6.1 mcg/mL, in the sec ond and third pregnancy trimesters and in the after-childbirth, respectively, whereas those of the group of increased dose had values of 7.9, 6.9 and 9.2 mcg/mL in the same time periods. Although LPV exposition has been significantly incr eased in the second group, the standard dose was enough to yield therapeutical levels of LPV to wild type virus (1 mcg/mL) in all women with treatment adherence, except one in the third pregnancy trimester. Fifty percent, 37.5% , and 25% of the volunteers have not achieved therapeutical levels for re sistant viruses using the standard dose during second and third trimesters of t he pregnancy and in the after-childbirth, respectively, whereas this ratio was of 0%, 15%, and 0% in the group of increased dose in the same time points. After 12 weeks of tr eatment and in the after childbirth, all the patients wit h good adherence to the treatment had undetectable HIV viral load and none of the babies who could be evaluated (49/54) was infected. T he standard dose of LPV/r was appropriate for use during pregnancy, and it is important to assure good treatment adherence, and to be able to consider the use of an increased dose when there are suspected cases or diagnosis of HIV infe ction with resistance mutations.

Les cellules souches cancéreuses (CSC) sont les cellules responsables du pouvoir tumoral et/ou métastasique, et résistent à la plus part des molécules anticancéreuses. L’expression de facteurs de transcription impliqués dans l’auto-renouvellement des cellules souches embryonnaires tels que Oct4 ou Nanog, indique toujours un mauvais pronostic quelle que soit l’origine de la tumeur. Ne pouvant pas isoler ces CSC à signature embryonnaire à l’aide des marqueurs de surface « traditionnels », le laboratoire a créé un modèle murin qui permet de sélectionner les cellules exprimant Oct4 à partir de tumeurs se développant spontanément dans différents tissus. A partir de ce modèle, nous avons cherché une classe de molécule pouvant cibler ces cellules. Nous montrons que les inhibiteurs de la protéase du VIH et principalement le Lopinavir, ciblent spécifiquement les CSC murines exprimant une signature embryonnaire. Ces cellules expriment aussi CXCR4, un récepteur au facteur chimiotactique CXCL12, impliqué dans la migration des cellules tumorales. Bien que préliminaires, nos résultats indiquent que CXCR4 joue un rôle tout comme Oct4 dans le maintien de l’auto-renouvellement des CSC exprimant une signature embryonnaire. De plus, nous proposons un mécanisme pour expliquer l’inter-dépendance entre ces deux facteurs dans le maintien des propriétés souches de ces CSC. Des travaux sur la transposition de ce modèle murin à un modèle humain sont actuellement en cours. / Cancer Stem Cells (CSC) bear the tumorigenic and/or metastatic potential and are resistant to most of the chemotherapeutic drugs. CSC expressing embryonic transcription factors such as Oct4 or Nanog are always associated to tumours with poor prognosis. As it is not possible to isolate them based on the expression of common cell surface markers, our lab has developed a mouse model selecting Oct4 expressing cells from tumours of diverse origins. Based on this model, we looked for a class of molecules that were able to target these cells. Here we show that HIV protease inhibitors, especially Lopinavir, specifically target CSC expressing an embryonic signature. These cells also express CXCR4, which is a receptor for the CXCL12 chemotactic factor implicated in cell migration including tumour cells. Although preliminary, our results indicate an unexpected role of CXCR4 in maintaining self-renewal of CSCs expressing an embryonic signature. We propose a model to explain the inter-dependence between Oct4 and CXCR4 to maintain stem cell properties in this population of CSC. We are now trying to transpose our mouse model to a human model.

Objetivos: 1.- Determinar la variabilidad interindividual de la concentración valle en plasma de los fármacos inhibidores de la transcriptasa inversa no análogos de los nucleósidos (ITINAN) y de los inhibidores de la proteasa (IP) del virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH), así como la proporción de pacientes infectados por el VIH en tratamiento antirretroviral con concentraciones valle de los fármacos por debajo de la concentración mínima eficaz en la practica clínica habitual. 2.- Evaluar la influencia de la co-infección por el virus de la hepatitis C (VHC) y el grado de fibrosis hepática asociado a la misma en la exposición a lopinavir y ritonavir en un grupo de pacientes infectados por el VIH sin evidencia de insuficiencia hepática. 3.- Desarrollar y validar un modelo farmacocinético poblacional simultáneo para lopinavir y ritonavir incluyendo las características individuales que explican parte de la variabilidad cinética de los fármacos observada en la práctica clínica así como la interacción entre lopinavir y ritonavir.Métodos: Para alcanzar el primer objetivo de realizó un estudio transversal en el que se determinó la concentración valle de los ITINAN e IP en todos los pacientes que acudieron a a unidad de VIH del Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol durante un periodo de dos semanas. Para alcanzar el segundo y tercer objetivos se realizó un estudio en el que se determinó la concentración de lopinavir y ritonavir en plasma en un grupo de pacientes en tratamiento estable con lopinavir/ritonavir, inmediatamente antes y durante las 12 siguientes a la administración de una dosis de lopinavir/ritonavir de 400/100 mg. Para lograr el segundo objetivo se realizó un análisis farmacocinético no compartimental mediante el programa informático WinNonlin (Versión 2.0; Pharsight, Mountain View, CA). El modelo farmacocinético poblacional simultáneo para ritonavir y lopinavir se desarrolló mediante el programa informático NONMEM.Resultados: La variabilidad interindividual de la concentración valle de los ITINAN e IP se estimó en aproximadamente el 50% (coeficiente de variación), y un 12% de los pacientes infectados por el VIH presentaban concentraciones valle de ITINAN o IP en plasma inferiores a la concentración mínima eficaz. Utilizando un análisis de datos no compartimental, los pacientes co-infectados por el VHC que tenían fibrosis hepática avanzada (F3-F4) mostraron un aumento significativo del volumen de distribución aparente de lopinavir así como una reducción del 50% en el aclaramiento y una mayor exposición a ritonavir que los pacientes no co-infectados o que los co-infectados sin fibrosis hepática avanzada. El mejor modelo farmacocinético poblacional que mejor describió la evolución temporal de las concentraciones de lopinavir y ritonavir fue un modelo monocompartimental con absorción y eliminación de primer orden. El análisis poblacional confirmó a reducción del aclaramiento de ritonavir en los pacientes co-infectados por el VHC en presencia de grados avanzados de fibrosis hepática. Además, el aclaramiento y el volumen de distribución aparentes de lopinavir se relacionaron de forma inversa con la concentración plasmática de alfa-1 glicoproteína ácida. Aunque la inhibición del aclaramiento de lopinavir por parte de ritonavir se describió en función del área bajo a curva de concentración-tiempo y de la concentración de ritonavir en cada punto de tiempo, la segunda estrategia proporcionó una mejor descripción de los datos observados. Utilizando un modelo de efecto máximo, se estimó que ritonavir podía ser capaz de inhibir por completo el aclaramiento de lopinavir (Imax 1), y la concentración de ritonavir necesaria para inhibir el aclaramiento de lopinavir fue de 0.36 mg/L. El modelo final fue posteriormente validado mediante simulaciones y en un grupo de pacientes no empleado para el desarrollo del modelo, sin objetivarse desviaciones sistemáticas y con una precisión adecuada. / Objectives: 1.- To assess interindividual variability in trough concentrations in plasma of non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTI) and protease inhibitors (PI) among HIV-infected adults as well as the proportion of patients with drug concentrations below the proposed minimum effective concentration in an outpatient routine clinical practice setting. 2.- To assess the influence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) co-infection and the extent of liver fibrosis on lopinavir and ritonavir pharmacokinetics in HIV-infected subjects without evident liver function impairment. 3.- To develop and validate a simultaneous population pharmacokinetic model for lopinavir and ritonavir in a population of HIV-infected adults. The model sought was to incorporate patient characteristics influencing variability in drug concentration and the interaction between the lopinavir and ritonavirMethods: To achieve the first objective, a cross-sectional study was performed. Trough concentration of NNRTI and PI in plasma was determined in patients who consecutively attended the HIV Unit of the Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol during a two weeks period for routine outpatient blood tests and who were receiving antiretroviral therapy which included NNRTI or PI. To achieve the second and third objectives, lopinavir and ritonavir concentrations in plasma were determined in a group of patients on stable therapy with lopinavir/ritonavir immediately before and during 12 hours following the administration of a lopinavir/ritonavir 400/100 mg dose. To reach the second objective, a pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using a non-compartmental approach by means of Winnonlin (Version 2.0; Pharsight, Mountain View, CA). Population analysis was performed using non-linear effects modeling (NONMEM, version V)Results: Interindividual variability in NNRTI and PI plasma concentrations was approximately 50% (coefficient of variation), and12% of the patients showed drug concentrations below the minimum effective concentration. Using a non-compartmental pharmacokinetic analysis, HCV co-infected patients who had advanced liver fibrosis (F3-F4) showed a significant increase in lopinavir apparent volume of distribution as well as a reduction of 50% in ritonavir clearance and an increase in ritonavir exposure compared with not co-infected patients or with co-infected patients without advanced liver fibrosis. The best population pharmacokinetic model which described the time course of lopinavir and ritonavir concentrations was a monocompartmental model with first order absorption and elimination. The population analysis confirmed the reduction in ritonavir clearance in HCV co-infected patients with advanced liver fibrosis. In addition, lopinavir clearance and volume of distribution were inversely correlated to concentration of α1-acid glycoprotein in plasma. Although, the inhibition of lopinavir clearance by ritonavir was assumed to be dependent on ritonavir area under the time-concentration curve or on ritonavir concentration at each time point, the second strategy resulted in a better description of the observed data. Using a maximum effect equation, it was estimated that lopinavir metabolism could be completely inhibited at high ritonavir concentrations (Imax 1), and the estimated ritonavir concentration necessary for producing half-inhibition of lopinavir CL/F was 0.36 mg/L. The population pharmacokinetic model was validated by means of simulations in a set of patients not included during the model-building step, showing absence of evident bias and good precision.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) related cervical cancer is still the most common gynaecological malignancy in developing countries and, as yet, there is no alternative to surgery for the treatment of HPV-associated pre-malignant lesions. HPV 'hijacks' the host-cell ubiquitin-proteasome system to degrade the p53 and Rb tumour suppressor proteins which in turn, leads to the development of cancer. Previous studies have shown that the HIV protease inhibitor lopinavir selectively inhibits the chymotryptic-like activity of the 26S proteasome which stabilises p53 and induces the apoptosis of HPV positive cervical carcinoma cells. Based on this it was hypothesised that lopinavir treatment of HPV positive cervical carcinoma cells would produce changes in the levels of a wide range of cellular proteins that are dis-regulated by HPV-related activation of the proteasome. In order to address this, antibody microarray screening was carried out on lopinavir treated and control untreated HPV positive SiHa cervical carcinoma cells. This showed lopinavir induced alterations in 51 proteins including the cellular antiviral defence protein RNase L. Lopinavir induced both a dose and time dependent increase in RNase L which was subsequently confirmed by western blotting. Transient siRNA silencing of RNase L expression reduced the lopinavir-dependent toxicity in SiHa cells, suggesting an important role for this protein in the toxicity of lopinavir in HPV infected cells. SiHa cells were much more sensitive to lopinavir than CaSKi cervical carcinoma cells which had much higher levels of the E6 protein and did not up regulate RNase L. Furthermore, lopinavir treated HPV16 E6/E7 immortalised keratinocytes were also shown to up regulate RNase L protein expression and these cells were much more sensitive to lopinavir induced apoptosis than mortal control keratinocytes. In addition, transient expression of RNase L in RNase L-deficient C33A cells and the same cells stably transfected with HPV16 E6 (C33AE6) demonstrated that E6 protected these cells from RNaseL-induced cell death. Surprisingly, analysis of RNase L protein levels in these cells demonstrated that E6 did not induce the degradation of the RNase L protein. Instead it was found that E6 stabilised the interaction between RNase L and its endogenous inhibitor protein, ABCE1, and that lopinavir de-stabilised this interaction. Given that C33A tumour cells, E6/E7 immortalised keratinocytes and hTert immortalised keratinocytes are all sensitive to lopinavir, this implies that this compound does not specifically target HPV immortalised cells but rather targets immortalised cells in general, regardless of how this was achieved. The optimum concentration of lopinavir for all these effects was 25 μM, which is 15-fold higher than is observed in cervico-vaginal secretions following oral dosing with the drug Kaletra. In conclusion these results have confirmed the potential of lopinavir to treat HPV related pre-cancerous cervical lesions and provided at least part of the mode-of-action. Indeed they strongly support the use of lopinavir as a low-cost, self-applied topical alternative to surgery for this disease which will be of particular benefit in low-resource countries. Finally, the ability of lopinavir to induce apoptosis of non-HPV related immortalised cells merits further investigation since this indicates this drug may be useful for the treatment of other non HPV related pre-malignant conditions.

The role of therapeutic drug monitoring in pediatric antiretroviral therapy is unclear. A little pharmacokinetic datum from clinical practice exists beyond controlled approval studies including clinically stable children. The aim of this study is to quantify LPV exposure of critically ill infants in an ICU and-by identifying risk factors for inadequate exposure-to define sensible indications for TDM in pediatric HIV care; in addition, assume total drug adherence in ICU to compare LPV exposure with a setting of unknown adherence. In this prospective investigation, 15 blood samples from critically ill infants in the pediatric ICU at Tygerberg Hospital were analyzed for LPV-serum concentrations. They were then compared to those of 22 blood samples from out-patient children. Serum-level measurements were performed with an established high-performance liquid chromatography method. All LPV-serum levels of ICU patients were higher than a recommended Ctrough (= 1.000 ng/ml), 60% of levels were higher than Cmax (8.200 ng/ml). Partly, serum levels reached were extremely high (Maximum: 28.778 ng/ml). Low bodyweight and age correlated significantly with high LPV concentrations and were risk factors for serum levels higher than Cmax. Significantly fewer serum levels from infants in ICU care (mean: 11.552 ng/ml ± SD 7760 ng/ml) than from out-patient children (mean: 6.756 ng/ml ± SD 6.003 ng/ml) were subtherapeutic (0 vs. 28%, p = 0.008). Under total adherence in the ICU group, there were no subtherapeutic serum levels, while, in out-patient, children with unknown adherence 28% of serum levels were found subtherapeutic. Low bodyweight and age are risk factors for reaching potentially toxic LPV levels in this extremely fragile population. TDM can be a reasonable tool to secure sufficient and safe drug exposure in pediatric cART. / Die Rolle des Therapeutischen Drug Monitorings (TDM) in der antiretroviralen Therapie bei Kindern ist unklar. Es existieren nur wenige pharmakokinetische Daten - insbesondere von kleinen Kindern – abseits der kontrollierter Zulassungsstudien an klinisch stabilen Patienten. Es ist das Ziel dieser Untersuchung, die Lopinavir-Exposition kritisch kranker Säuglinge auf einer pädiatrischen Intensivstation zu quantifizieren und durch die Identifikation von Risikofaktoren für inadäquate Exposition sinnvolle Indikation für einen Einsatz von TDM in der pädiatrischen HIV-Versorgung zu definieren. Des Weiteren verglichen wir unter Annahme totaler Adhärenz auf die Lopinavir-Exposition auf einer Intensivstation mit der einer ambulanten Versorgungsstruktur. In dieser prospektiven Studie untersuchten wir 15 Serum Proben kritisch kranker Säuglinge auf der pädiatrischen Intensivstation des Tygerberg Hospitals im Hinblick auf LPV-Serumkonzentrationen. Sie wurden verglichen mit 22 Konzentrationen von ambulant betreuten Kindern. Die Messungen wurden mit einer etablierten HPLC-Methode durchgeführt. Alle LPV-Konzentrationen der Intensiv-Patienten waren höher als die empfohlene Talspiegel (Ctrough = 1.000 ng/ml), 60% waren höher als Cmax (8.200 ng/ml). Es wurden zum Teil extrem hohe Konzentrationen erreicht (Max. 28.778 ng/ml). Ein geringes Körpergewicht und Alter korrelierten signifikant mit hohen LPV-Konzentrationen und waren Risikofaktoren für Spiegel, die über Cmax lagen. Signifikant weniger Konzentrationen von Intensivpatienten (MW: 11.552 ng/ml ± SD 7760 ng/ml) waren subtherapeutisch als von ambulant betreuten Kindern (mean: 6.756 ng/ml ± SD 6.003 ng/ml) (0 vs. 28%, p = 0.008). Unter totaler Adhärenz in der Intensiv-Gruppe waren keine subtherapeutischen Konzentrationen festzustellen, während 28% der ambulant betreuten Kinder subtherapeutischen Spiegel aufwiesen. Ein geringes Körpergewicht und Alter sind Risikofaktoren für das Erreichen potenziell toxischer Konzentrationen von Lopinavir in dieser extrem fragilen Population. TDM kann helfen LPV-Toxizität von anderen klinischen Erscheinungen zu differenzieren. TDM kann ein sinnvolles Hilfsmittel sein, um eine sichere und effektive antiretrovirale Therapie bei Kindern zu garantieren.

Background: Antiretroviral therapy (ART), notably lopinavir and nevirapine substantially reduces Human immune-deficiency virus (HIV) associated morbidity and mortality in HIVinfected children. Low concentrations of nevirapine and lopinavir have been linked to inferior virological outcomes; it is recommended that lopinavir and nevirapine concentrations are maintained above 1 mg/L and 3 mg/L, respectively, in order to maintain viral suppression. Adherence to both lopinavir and nevirapine ART, respectively has long known to be a crucial contributor to HIV treatment success. Lopinavir and nevirapine pharmacokinetics demonstrate considerable inter-individual variability, which may affect treatment outcomes. At least part of this variability may be explained by host genetic factors. Associations between human genetic variants and exposure to lopinavir and nevirapine are incompletely understood, and have not been studied in a South African paediatric population. Data in this thesis were from a clinical trial conducted at Rahima Moosa Mother and Child Hospital in Johannesburg to assess whether NVP can be re-used (Post-randomization Phase) among 323 children exposed to NVP for PMTCT if they are first suppressed on ritonavir-boosted lopinavir based regimen (Pre-randomization Phase). This thesis assessed the relationship between serial clinic visits lopinavir (Pre-and-Post-randomization) and nevirapine (Postrandomization) concentrations and/or percentage adherence(Pre-and-Post-randomization) and virological outcomes in children. Moreover, population pharmacokinetics models were used to characterise lopinavir and nevirapine parameters. From the final models parameters were derived and were used to assess the relationship between lopinavir and nevirapine pharmacokinetics and genetic polymorphism relevant to both drugs Methods: Cox proportional hazard regression modelling for multiple failure events was used to estimate the crude and adjusted hazard effect of lopinavir (Pre-and Post-randomization) and nevirapine(Post-randomization) concentrations and/or percent adherence(Pre-and Post-randomization) of viral load>400 copies/mL (Pre-randomization) and >50 copies/mL (Post-randomization), respectively. The population means and variances of lopinavir and nevirapine pharmacokinetic parameters at steady state were estimated using non-linear mixed-effects regression. The final models of lopinavir and nevirapine were used to derive individual clearances (CL/F), minimum concentrations (Cmin) and area under the concentration time curves (AUC). The associations between model-derived pharmacokinetic parameters and genotypes in selected genes relevant to lopinavir or nevirapine were explored. Results: In 237 children pre-randomization with viral loads and lopinavir concentrations, the crude and adjusted Cox models revealed significant associations between virologic failure (viral load>400 copies/mL) and both lopinavir plasma concentrations (<1/mg/L) and pretreatment height-for-age z-scores but not percent adherence. In 99 children postrandomization, lopinavir concentrations >1 mg/L reduced the risk of viremia (viral load >50 copies/mL) with about 40%, compared to children with LPV <1 mg/L. No association was found with percent adherence in this group. In 95 children on nevirapine post-randomization, nevirapine concentrations were not significantly associated with increased hazard of viremia (viral load >50 copies/mL). Similarly, there was no significant association with percent adherence in this group. Lopinavir and nevirapine pharmacokinetics were both separately best described with a one compartment models with absorption lag time and transit compartment absorption models, respectively. There was an age driven effect on lopinavir and nevirapine relative bioavailability, respectively. After adjusting for multiple testing, there was no significant association between lopinavir CL/F, Cmin and AUC and genetic polymorphisms in the ABCB1, CYP3A4, CYP3A5 and SLCO1B1. CYP2B6 516G→T and CYP2B6 983T→C were associated with NVP CL/F. CYP2B6 983T→C was associated with NVP Cmin and AUC. Additionally, polymorphisms in the ABCB1 and CYP3A5 were independently associated with NVP CL/F, Cmin and AUC. Conclusions: Lopinavir concentrations <1mg/L were associated with the increased hazard of viremia (viral load >400 copies/mL or >50 copies/mL). The results suggest that lopinavir plasma concentration monitoring at a routine clinic visit may be a useful tool in identifying sub-therapeutic antiretroviral concentrations in children, and this could be used as a guide to therapeutic drug monitoring in children. There was no statistically significant association between polymorphisms in the ABCB1, CYP3A4, CYP3A5 and SLCO1B1 and lopinavir pharmacokinetics. Polymorphisms in the ABCB1, CYP2B6 CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 predicted nevirapine pharmacokinetics.

O lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/RTV) são os inibidores de proteases mais utilizados em mulheres grávidas portadoras do vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV). O LPV, um fármaco substrato do transportador de efluxo glicoproteína P (P-gp), apresenta uma baixa e variável biodisponibilidade oral devido ao extenso metabolismo dependente do CYP3A4 hepático e intestinal. No entanto, o LPV é co-administrado com o RTV, um potente inibidor do metabolismo mediado pelo CYP3A4 e um potente inibidor do transportador P-gp. O estudo investiga a disposição cinética do LPV e do RTV no plasma materno de gestantes portadoras do HIV assim como a transferência placentária de ambos os fármacos. Foram investigadas 7 pacientes no terceiro trimestre de gestação em tratamento com 400 mg de LPV e 100 mg de RTV a cada 12 h. As amostras seriadas de sangue materno foram coletadas até 12 h após a administração do LPV/RTV. No momento do parto, também foram coletadas, simultaneamente, amostras de sangue materno e sangue do cordão umbilical para determinar a taxa de transferência placentária do LPV/RTV. O método de análise simultânea do LPV e RTV em plasma foi desenvolvido e validado empregando LC-MS/MS. As amostras de plasma (100 ?L) foram adicionadas de antipirina como padrão interno e submetidas à extração líquido-líquido com éter metil terc-butílico. A separação do LPV, RTV e padrão interno foi obtida na coluna de fase reversa C18e com fase móvel constituída de acetonitrila, água e ácido fórmico (50:50:0,1, v/v/v) na vazão de 1,3 mL/min. O método não apresenta efeito matriz, é linear no intervalo de 6,40 ng/mL-12,50 ?g/mL para o LPV e 3,20 ng/mL- 12,50 ?g/mL para o RTV e os limites inferiores de quantificação são de 6,40 ng/mL para o LPV e 3,20 ng/mL para o RTV. Os coeficientes de variação e os erros padrão relativos obtidos nos estudos de precisão e exatidão intra e intercorridas foram inferiores a 15% para ambos os compostos. A análise farmacocinética foi realizada empregando o programa WinNonlin e os testes estatísticos foram realizados com o auxílio do programa GraphPad Prisma. Os seguintes parâmetros farmacocinéticos foram obtidos para o LPV (dados expressos como medianas) durante o terceiro trimestre da gestação: Cmax 14,63 ?g/mL, tmax 4,0 h, AUC0-12 95,21 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 6,72 h, Cl/F 4,20 L/h e Vd/F 37,91 L. Em relação ao RTV, foram obtidos os seguintes valores: Cmax 0,64 ?g/mL, tmax 4,0 h, AUC0-12 4,47 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 3,20 h, Cl/F 22,39 L/h e Vd/F 110,43 L. No momento do parto foram observadas as razões de concentrações veia umbilical/plasma materno de 0,11 (0,09-0,20) para o LPV e 0,07 (0,05- 0,12) para o RTV (dados apresentados como medianas e percentis 25-75), indicando baixa transferência de ambos os fármacos através da barreira placentária. / Lopinavir (LPV)/ritonavir (RTV) are currently the most commonly used protease inhibitors in pregnant women with HIV. LVP, a substrate of drug efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp), has a very low oral bioavailability due to the extensive metabolism by CYP3A4. However, it is coadministered with ritonavir, a potent inhibitor of CYP3A4 and P-gp. This study investigates the kinetic disposition of LPV and RTV in maternal plasma of pregnant women with HIV as well as the placental transfer of both drugs. We investigated 7 patients in the third trimester of pregnancy treated with 400 mg of LPV and 100 mg of RTV every 12 h. Serial maternal blood samples were collected up to 12 h after administration of LPV/RTV. At delivery were also collected simultaneously maternal and cord blood samples to determine the placental transfer of both drugs. The method of simultaneous analysis of LPV an RTV in plasma was developed and validated using LC-MS/MS. Plasma samples (100 ?L) were spiked with antipyrine as internal standard and submitted to liquid-liquid extraction with tertbutyl methyl ether. The separation of LPV, RTV and internal standard was obtained on C18e reverse phase column with a mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile, water and formic acid (50:50:0.1, v/v/v) at a flow rate of 1.3 mL/min. The method has no matrix effect, it is linear in the range of 6.40 ng/mL to 12.50 ?g/mL for LPV and 3.20 to 12.50 ?g/mL for RTV and shows lower limits of quantitation of 6.40 ng/mL for LPV and 3.20 ng/mL for RTV. The coefficients of variation and relative standard errors obtained in studies of intraassay and interassay precision and accuracy were below 15% for both compounds. Pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using the WinNonlin program. The following pharmacokinetic parameters were obtained for LPV (data expressed as medians) during the third trimester of pregnancy: Cmax 14.63 ?g/mL, tmax 4.0 h, AUC0-12 95.21 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 6.72 h, Cl/F 4.20 L/h and Vd/F 37.91 L. Regarding RTV, the following values were obtained: Cmax 0.64 ?g/mL, tmax 4.0 h, AUC0-12 4.47 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 3.20 h, Cl/F 22.39 L/h and Vd/F 110.43 L. The umbilical vein/maternal plasma ratios were 0.11 (0.09 to 0.20) for LPV and 0.07 (0.05 to 0.12) for RTV (data presented as medians and percentiles 25-75), indicating low placental transfer of both drugs.

O lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/RTV) são os inibidores de proteases mais utilizados em mulheres grávidas portadoras do vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV). O LPV, um fármaco substrato do transportador de efluxo glicoproteína P (P-gp), apresenta uma baixa e variável biodisponibilidade oral devido ao extenso metabolismo dependente do CYP3A4 hepático e intestinal. No entanto, o LPV é co-administrado com o RTV, um potente inibidor do metabolismo mediado pelo CYP3A4 e um potente inibidor do transportador P-gp. O estudo investiga a disposição cinética do LPV e do RTV no plasma materno de gestantes portadoras do HIV assim como a transferência placentária de ambos os fármacos. Foram investigadas 7 pacientes no terceiro trimestre de gestação em tratamento com 400 mg de LPV e 100 mg de RTV a cada 12 h. As amostras seriadas de sangue materno foram coletadas até 12 h após a administração do LPV/RTV. No momento do parto, também foram coletadas, simultaneamente, amostras de sangue materno e sangue do cordão umbilical para determinar a taxa de transferência placentária do LPV/RTV. O método de análise simultânea do LPV e RTV em plasma foi desenvolvido e validado empregando LC-MS/MS. As amostras de plasma (100 ?L) foram adicionadas de antipirina como padrão interno e submetidas à extração líquido-líquido com éter metil terc-butílico. A separação do LPV, RTV e padrão interno foi obtida na coluna de fase reversa C18e com fase móvel constituída de acetonitrila, água e ácido fórmico (50:50:0,1, v/v/v) na vazão de 1,3 mL/min. O método não apresenta efeito matriz, é linear no intervalo de 6,40 ng/mL-12,50 ?g/mL para o LPV e 3,20 ng/mL- 12,50 ?g/mL para o RTV e os limites inferiores de quantificação são de 6,40 ng/mL para o LPV e 3,20 ng/mL para o RTV. Os coeficientes de variação e os erros padrão relativos obtidos nos estudos de precisão e exatidão intra e intercorridas foram inferiores a 15% para ambos os compostos. A análise farmacocinética foi realizada empregando o programa WinNonlin e os testes estatísticos foram realizados com o auxílio do programa GraphPad Prisma. Os seguintes parâmetros farmacocinéticos foram obtidos para o LPV (dados expressos como medianas) durante o terceiro trimestre da gestação: Cmax 14,63 ?g/mL, tmax 4,0 h, AUC0-12 95,21 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 6,72 h, Cl/F 4,20 L/h e Vd/F 37,91 L. Em relação ao RTV, foram obtidos os seguintes valores: Cmax 0,64 ?g/mL, tmax 4,0 h, AUC0-12 4,47 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 3,20 h, Cl/F 22,39 L/h e Vd/F 110,43 L. No momento do parto foram observadas as razões de concentrações veia umbilical/plasma materno de 0,11 (0,09-0,20) para o LPV e 0,07 (0,05- 0,12) para o RTV (dados apresentados como medianas e percentis 25-75), indicando baixa transferência de ambos os fármacos através da barreira placentária. / Lopinavir (LPV)/ritonavir (RTV) are currently the most commonly used protease inhibitors in pregnant women with HIV. LVP, a substrate of drug efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp), has a very low oral bioavailability due to the extensive metabolism by CYP3A4. However, it is coadministered with ritonavir, a potent inhibitor of CYP3A4 and P-gp. This study investigates the kinetic disposition of LPV and RTV in maternal plasma of pregnant women with HIV as well as the placental transfer of both drugs. We investigated 7 patients in the third trimester of pregnancy treated with 400 mg of LPV and 100 mg of RTV every 12 h. Serial maternal blood samples were collected up to 12 h after administration of LPV/RTV. At delivery were also collected simultaneously maternal and cord blood samples to determine the placental transfer of both drugs. The method of simultaneous analysis of LPV an RTV in plasma was developed and validated using LC-MS/MS. Plasma samples (100 ?L) were spiked with antipyrine as internal standard and submitted to liquid-liquid extraction with tertbutyl methyl ether. The separation of LPV, RTV and internal standard was obtained on C18e reverse phase column with a mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile, water and formic acid (50:50:0.1, v/v/v) at a flow rate of 1.3 mL/min. The method has no matrix effect, it is linear in the range of 6.40 ng/mL to 12.50 ?g/mL for LPV and 3.20 to 12.50 ?g/mL for RTV and shows lower limits of quantitation of 6.40 ng/mL for LPV and 3.20 ng/mL for RTV. The coefficients of variation and relative standard errors obtained in studies of intraassay and interassay precision and accuracy were below 15% for both compounds. Pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using the WinNonlin program. The following pharmacokinetic parameters were obtained for LPV (data expressed as medians) during the third trimester of pregnancy: Cmax 14.63 ?g/mL, tmax 4.0 h, AUC0-12 95.21 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 6.72 h, Cl/F 4.20 L/h and Vd/F 37.91 L. Regarding RTV, the following values were obtained: Cmax 0.64 ?g/mL, tmax 4.0 h, AUC0-12 4.47 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 3.20 h, Cl/F 22.39 L/h and Vd/F 110.43 L. The umbilical vein/maternal plasma ratios were 0.11 (0.09 to 0.20) for LPV and 0.07 (0.05 to 0.12) for RTV (data presented as medians and percentiles 25-75), indicating low placental transfer of both drugs.

L’utilisation d’un traitement antirétroviral, chez la femme enceinte ou chez l’enfant infecté par le VIH, doit être optimale en termes d’efficacité et de tolérance. De nombreuses modifications physiologiques ont lieu tout au long de la grossesse ainsi que pendant les premières années de vie d’un enfant. Ces changements peuvent intervenir à tous les niveaux du devenir du médicament dans l’organisme. Une mauvaise connaissance des variations pharmacocinétiques associées à ces changements physiologiques peut amener à une toxicité ou à une inefficacité de ces traitements. Il est donc primordial de connaître la pharmacocinétique des différentes molécules antirétrovirales recommandées chez la femme enceinte et l’enfant infectés par le VIH. Les pharmacocinétiques de deux inhibiteurs non nucléosidiques de la transcriptase inverse, la zidovudine et l’abacavir et celle d'un inhibiteur de protéase, le lopinavir, ont été étudiées chez la femme enceinte et/ou chez l'enfant par une approche de population. L’évaluation et l’optimisation des recommandations posologiques de ces trois molécules ont été réalisées en tenant compte de relations concentration-effet et/ou concentration-toxicité précédemment établies. L'étude décrivant la pharmacocinétique de l’abacavir a montré qu’une adaptation posologique n’était pas nécessaire pendant la grossesse. En revanche, les études sur la pharmacocinétique de la zidovudine ont montré que les doses recommandées, chez la femme enceinte et chez l’enfant, devraient être diminuées afin de limiter les risques de toxicité. Pour finir, l’étude sur la pharmacocinétique du lopinavir a suggéré qu’il n’était pas nécessaire d’augmenter les posologies pendant la grossesse, contrairement à ce qui est recommandé dans la littérature. / The use of an antiretroviral therapy in pregnant women or in HIV-infected child should be optimal in terms of efficacy and safety. Important physiological changes occur during pregnancy and the first years of life. These changes can affect drug pharmacokinetics. Poor knowledge of pharmacokinetic variations associated with these physiological changes can lead to toxicity or failure of these treatments. Therefore, it is important to know the antiretroviral pharmacokinetics of recommended drugs in pregnant women and in HIV-infected children. The pharmacokinetics of two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, zidovudine and abacavir and one protease inhibitor, lopinavir, have been studied in pregnant women and/or in children with a population approach. The evaluation and optimization of dosage recommendations of these three molecules have been achieved using concentration-efficacy and/or concentration-toxicity relationships previously established. The study describing the abacavir pharmacokinetics showed that a dose adjustment was not necessary during pregnancy. However, studies on zidovudine pharmacokinetics presented that the doses recommended in pregnant women and in children should be reduced in order to limit the toxicity risks. Finally, the study on lopinavir pharmacokinetics suggested not to increase the lopinavir dosage during pregnancy contrary to the recommendations of previous studies.