L'objectif de cette thèse a été d'explorer la possibilité d'utiliser la charge électrostatique pour améliorer les conditions de contact glissant sec ou lubrifié (deux huiles avec viscosités différentes et de l’eau distillée) entre matériaux polymériques (PP, PE, PS, ABS et deux types de PVC). Trois nouvelles installations expérimentales ont été conçues et réalisées. La première installation est un tribomètre linéaire qui permet le réglage de quatre variables de contrôle du processus de charge (la force normale, la vitesse, la durée et l’amplitude du mouvement de glissement) et la mesure de trois caractéristiques du régime de frottement (la force tangentielle, la variation de la force normale et le déplacement relatif entre les éprouvettes). La deuxième installation est un dispositif pour mesurer la distribution de la charge électrique de surface et la corréler avec des cartographies de température. Une troisième installation est destinée à l'étude de l’influence de la charge électrique sur l’angle de contact de gouttelettes déposées en surface. Les expériences réalisées ont montré que le niveau de la charge généré par frottement sec dépend du temps de frottement, de l’usure, de la pression de contact et de la rugosité des surfaces. Une charge générée par effet triboélectrique ou par décharge couronne peut augmenter le frottement à sec. En revanche, la présence d’une charge électrique à la surface du polymère améliore le frottement lubrifié. Les mesures d’angles de contact ont mis en évidence que celui-ci dépend de la nature du liquide et du polymère étudiés, ainsi que de l’état de charge électrique des échantillons. / The approach undertaken in this thesis is to explore the possibility of using the electrostatic charge to improve the dry or lubricated (two oils with different viscosity and distilled water) sliding contacts between polymeric materials (PP, PE, PS, and ABS, two types of PVC). Three experimental benches were designed and built. The first installation is a linear tribometer designed to study the sliding contacts between solids with dry or lubricated friction. It allows the adjustment to four control variables of the tribocharging process: normal force, sliding speed, time and stroke, and the measurement of three characteristics of the friction regime: the tangential force, the variation of the normal force and the relative displacement between the specimens. The second installation is a device for measuring the distribution of the surface electrical charge, and for correlating it with the temperature mappings. A third installation is designed to study the influence of the electric charge on the contact angle of droplets deposited on the surface. The experiments showed that the level of the charge generated by dry friction depends on the friction time, the wear, the contact pressure and the roughness. A charge generated by friction or by corona discharge can increase dry friction. On the other hand, the presence of electric charge on the surface of polymers can improve a lubricated contact. The contact angle measurements pointed out the influence of the nature of both solid and liquid materials involved in the contact, as well as of the electric charge of the samples.

Le développement de nouvelles technologies permettant d’obtenir des procédés de fabrication novateurs, de même que l’utilisation de nouveaux matériaux et lubrifiants, ont rendu possible une amélioration globale de l’efficacité des systèmes mécaniques et la résolution de nombreuses défaillances. Néanmoins, certains types de détérioration comme le grippage restent difficiles à appréhender car ils résultent de nombreux paramètres connexes tels que le régime de lubrification, la température du contact et le coefficient de frottement. Le grippage est un phénomène qui apparait de manière brutale et qui se caractérise par des arrachements et des transferts de matières entre les surfaces en contact pouvant aller jusqu’à la destruction complète du système. Ce dernier est généralement associé à une mauvaise dissipation des calories entrainant des températures de contact élevées. De nombreux critères basés sur la dissipation d’énergie dans le contact ont été établis sans pour autant que l’un d’eux ne soit unanimement reconnu par la communauté scientifique. La première partie de cette étude a consisté à caractériser le comportement en frottement d’un couple matériau-lubrifiant grâce à l’utilisation d’une machine bi-disque. En parallèle, une modélisation thermique de ce banc d’essais a été réalisée en utilisant la méthode des réseaux thermiques. Les corrélations entre les formules analytiques et les mesures expérimentales ont permis d’aboutir à l’établissement d’une loi de frottement liant conditions de contact et température de masse des éprouvettes. Il a aussi pu être démontré que la température de masse des disques pouvait être considérablement différente de la température d’injection du lubrifiant en fonction des conditions opératoires. Ce résultat permet une analyse nouvelle des critères de grippage dont la plupart assimilent la température des éprouvettes à celle d’injection du lubrifiant. Malgré cela, les différents essais de grippage réalisés montrent que l’unique considération de la température de contact pour établir un critère de grippage s’avère insuffisante. / The development of new technologies, which allow innovative manufacturing processes, as well as the use of new materials and lubricants have led to an overall improvement of mechanical systems efficiency and reliability. However some failures, like scuffing, remain difficult to understand since they depend on many related parameters such as the lubrication regime, the contact temperature and the friction coefficient. Scuffing is a critical damage that appears suddenly and which is characterised by local welds and scratches between the sliding surfaces. It can lead to complete destruction of the mechanical system. This phenomenon is in general related to poor heat dissipation and overheating resulting in high contact temperature. Numerous studies were conducted in order to establish a scuffing criterion based on energetic approach. But none of them is unanimously recognized by the scientific community. The first part of this study consisted in characterizing the frictional behaviour of a given couple of lubricant and material thanks to the use of a twin-disc machine. In a second part, a thermal modelling of this test bench has been realised using the thermal network methodology. Correlations between analytical formulas and experimental measurements allowed to establish a friction law relating contact conditions and disc bulk temperature. It has also been demonstrated that the disc bulk temperature could be considerably different from the lubricant injection temperature depending on the operating conditions. This result allows a new interpretation of existing scuffing criteria, which for most of them consider the disc temperature to equal the oil temperature. Despite this analysis, the scuffing experiments performed reveal that accounting solely for the contact temperature is not sufficient to establish a reliable scuffing criterion.

Depuis plusieurs années à nos jours, les paliers à gaz sont utilisés avec succès sur une large gamme de turbo-machines. Certains de ces systèmes sont utilisés dans des environnements de contrôle de l’environnement par gaz réfrigérant. Dans ce travail, nous présentons un modèle théorique et numérique qui tient compte de la transition du lubrifiant vapeur / liquide, la transition de l’écoulement laminaire / turbulent et les variations 3D de la viscosité et de la température dans le fluide et les solides pour les deux situations statiques et dynamiques. Ce modèle comporte : la résolution de l'équation de Reynolds généralisée pour les fluides compressibles à viscosité variable en 3D, la description des effets de la turbulence en utilisant l'approche phénoménologique de Elrod, en utilisant un champ de viscosité turbulente 3D, la résolution de l’équation d’état non linéaire du lubrifiant, capable de décrire la transition vapeur / liquide et une approche thermique local afin d'obtenir une estimation 3D de la température du fluide, grâce à l'équation d'énergie pour film mince. La prise en compte également des effets thermiques dans les solides. Dans cette étude, nous avons montré l'importance d'une description précise des paramètres du film fluide, dont les variations influencent largement le comportement du palier. Parmi les principales théories, il y a: lubrifiant compressible, avec un comportement non-linéaire près de la transition vapeur / liquide, la transition vapeur / liquide et le calcul des paramètres équivalents du mélange, un écoulement turbulent du fluide pour le palier GFB à grande vitesse en utilisant un modèle 3D de la viscosité turbulente, un comportement 3D pour la viscosité, en particulier les variations inter-films (dépendant de la température), et un comportement 3D pour la température, en particulier dans le sens transversal du film afin d'être compatible avec la viscosité, mais également dans la direction axiale afin de tenir en compte du gradient de température potentiel qui modifie considérablement le profil 3D de la température du palier. Ces deux comportements statiques et dynamiques du palier compliant GFB sont analysés. / For years now, gas bearings are successfully used over a large panel of turbo-machineries. Some of these systems are bound to be run in controlled environments such as refrigerating gas. In this work we present a theoretical and numerical model which takes into account the vapor/liquid lubricant transition, the laminar/turbulent flow transition and both temperature and viscosity 3D variations in the fluid and the solids for both static and dynamic situations. This model involves: the resolution of the generalized Reynolds equation for compressible fluids with 3D variable viscosity, the description of the turbulence effects by the phenomenological approach of Elrod, using a 3D eddy viscosity field, the resolution of a non-linear equation of state for the lubricant, able to describe the vapor/liquid transition and a local thermal approach to obtain a 3D estimation of the fluid temperature, thanks to the thin-film energy equation. The thermal effects in solids are also taken into account. In this study, we showed the importance of an accurate description of the film parameters, which variations largely influence the bearing behaviour. Among the principal theories, there are: compressible lubricant, with an appropriate non-linear behaviour when close to the vapor/liquid transition, vapor/liquid transition and calculation of the mixture equivalent parameters, turbulent flow for high-speed GFBs with a 3D eddy viscosity mode, a 3D behaviour for viscosity, particularly the cross-film variations, (temperature dependent)and a 3D behaviour for temperature, particularly in cross-film direction in order to be consistent with viscosity, but also in the axial direction in order to account for potential temperature gradient which considerably modifies the bearing 3D temperature profile. Both static and dynamic behaviours of GFBs are analysed.

The main purpose of this project is to investigate different tool steels in terms of their ability to withstand material transfer buildup, so-called galling, occurring in SMF (sheet metal forming) operations. The ability to withstand galling is vital to optimize cost-effectiveness and increase the work tool’s effective operational time. This investigation studies four different tool steels, including a TiN-coating, with the intention of evaluating the microstructures, chemical composition and hardness effect on galling resistance in dry conditions using a slider-on-flatsurface (SOFS) tribo-tester which measures the coefficient of friction during sliding. An OP (optical profilometer) was used to measure the size and geometry of lump growth on the tool and damage on the work sheet. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to identify the interacting tribological mechanisms exhibited at different stages during the slide. The SEM figures confirmed three different types of characteristic patterns exhibited in the tracks after tribo- testing which were categorized as mild adhesive, abrasive and severe adhesive damage. A SEM figure that illustrates a ragged contact surface and an obvious change in the sheet materials plastic behavior is in this report regarded as a sign of severe adhesive contact, the characteristics could possibly be explained by local high temperature and high pressure followed by a sudden pressure drop and creation of hardened welds or solders between the two surfaces which increase the frictional input needed for further advancement. Friction coefficients observed in the initial 100% mild adhesive stage were, μ=0,22-0,26 succeeded by abrasive SEM characteristics often in association with mild adhesive contact and friction values between μ=0,25-0,4 which where sometimes followed by severe adhesive SEM characteristics in 100% of the contact zone with friction values between μ=0,34- 0,9 respectively. The tool material that performed best according to the friction detection criteria was Sv21 closely followed by Sleipner (TiN coated) and Va40 (HRC 63.3). Unfortunately was the friction criteria, a significant raise in friction for defining a sliding length to galling, not adequate for dry conditions due to immediate material transfer succeeded by cyclic changes between partial or 100% abrasive+mild adhesive and severe adhesive contact. The mechanism that change abrasive wear in association with mild adhesive contact, (moderate friction input), to sever adhesive wear, (higher friction input), is dependent on lump shape (lump geometry) and can appear at comparably low speeds 0,04-0,08 [m/s] and low friction energy input (μ=0,34), the magnitude of the change in friction is therefore not always significant and hardly detectable on the friction graph. This was quite unexpected but could be explained by concentration of friction energy rater than the absolute amount. The problem with using friction graphs for galling evaluation was increased even further when a very small lump size and low corresponding rate of material transfer to the tool surface caused a sustainable high raise in friction (μ≈0,3→0,6) on a TiN-coated tool steel called Sleipner. A hardly detectable or similar friction raise for Sv21 and Va40 showed much larger corresponding lump size and rate of material transfer. This means that friction graphs demonstrate a clear problem with quantifying lump size [m3] and rate of  material transfer [m3/s]. Another phenomenon called stick slip behavior, material transfer and lump growth followed by a sudden decrease in lump size and transfer of material back to the work sheet, is also not possible to detect on a friction graph. Because a drop in friction can easily be a change in contact temperature and lump attack angle due to a growing lump and not a decreasing lump.   The conclusion, a friction graph is not suited for galling evaluation and ranking in dry SOFS conditions. A ranking should primarily be based on dimensional OP measurements of the cross section of formed tracks and scratches or preferably by repeated OP measurements of the tool surface during a single test, the last revel the exact lump growth history and true lump growth even in the sliding direction. / civilingenjörsexamen

<p>The main purpose of this project is to investigate different tool steels in terms of their ability to withstand material transfer buildup, so-called galling, occurring in SMF (sheet metal forming) operations. The ability to withstand galling is vital to optimize cost-effectiveness and increase the work tool’s effective operational time. This investigation studies four different tool steels, including a TiN-coating, with the intention of evaluating the microstructures, chemical composition and hardness effect on galling resistance in dry conditions using a slider-on-flatsurface (SOFS) tribo-tester which measures the coefficient of friction during sliding.</p><p>An OP (optical profilometer) was used to measure the size and geometry of lump growth on the tool and damage on the work sheet. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to identify the interacting tribological mechanisms exhibited at different stages during the slide. The SEM figures confirmed three different types of characteristic patterns exhibited in the tracks after tribo- testing which were categorized as mild adhesive, abrasive and severe adhesive damage.</p><p>A SEM figure that illustrates a ragged contact surface and an obvious change in the sheet materials plastic behavior is in this report regarded as a sign of severe adhesive contact, the characteristics could possibly be explained by local high temperature and high pressure followed by a sudden pressure drop and creation of hardened welds or solders between the two surfaces which increase the frictional input needed for further advancement. Friction coefficients observed in the initial 100% mild adhesive stage were, μ=0,22-0,26 succeeded by abrasive SEM characteristics often in association with mild adhesive contact and friction values between μ=0,25-0,4 which where sometimes followed by severe adhesive SEM characteristics in 100% of the contact zone with friction values between μ=0,34- 0,9 respectively. The tool material that performed best according to the friction detection criteria was Sv21 closely followed by Sleipner (TiN coated) and Va40 (HRC 63.3). Unfortunately was the friction criteria, a significant raise in friction for defining a sliding length to galling, not adequate for dry conditions due to immediate material transfer succeeded by cyclic changes between partial or 100% abrasive+mild adhesive and severe adhesive contact. The mechanism that change abrasive wear in association with mild adhesive contact, (moderate friction input), to sever adhesive wear, (higher friction input), is dependent on lump shape (lump geometry) and can appear at comparably low speeds 0,04-0,08 [m/s] and low friction energy input (μ=0,34), the magnitude of the change in friction is therefore not always significant and hardly detectable on the friction graph. This was quite unexpected but could be explained by concentration of friction energy rater than the absolute amount. The problem with using friction graphs for galling evaluation was increased even further when a very small lump size and low corresponding rate of material transfer to the tool surface caused a sustainable high raise in friction (μ≈0,3→0,6) on a TiN-coated tool steel called Sleipner.</p><p>A hardly detectable or similar friction raise for Sv21 and Va40 showed much larger corresponding lump size and rate of material transfer. This means that friction graphs demonstrate a clear problem with quantifying lump size [m3] and rate of  material transfer [m3/s]. Another phenomenon called stick slip behavior, material transfer and lump growth followed by a sudden decrease in lump size and transfer of material back to the work sheet, is also not possible to detect on a friction graph. Because a drop in friction can easily be a change in contact temperature and lump attack angle due to a growing lump and not a decreasing lump.</p><p> </p><p>The conclusion, a friction graph is not suited for galling evaluation and ranking in dry SOFS conditions. A ranking should primarily be based on dimensional OP measurements of the cross section of formed tracks and scratches or preferably by repeated OP measurements of the tool surface during a single test, the last revel the exact lump growth history and true lump growth even in the sliding direction.</p><p> </p> / civilingenjörsexamen

Une lubrification suffisante est essentielle au bon fonctionnement des mécanismes et/ou composants comme par exemple les paliers à roulement. Par contre, les lubrifiants contiennent souvent des débris d’usure ou des polluants extérieurs. Ces particules micrométriques peuvent pénétrer des contacts d’épaisseur inférieure au micromètre induisant des empruntes ou indents pouvant conduire à des endommagements irréversibles pour les surfaces en contact. L’objet de ce travail est l’étude du piégeage de polluants solides à l’aide de particules sphériques d’acier, d’un point de vue théorique, numérique et expérimental. Dans un premier temps, une étude phénoménologique a été proposée à l’aide d’une nouvelle méthode expérimentale basée sur la technique PIV combinée à un tribomètre bille/disque. Les trajectoires des polluants à l’entrée du contact ont pu ainsi être identifiées. En parallèle, un modèle numérique d’écoulement du lubrifiant a été développé pour permettre l’évaluation des conditions menant au piégeage ou non de particules. Finalement, des expériences sur une machine bi-disques en conditions de lubrification polluée contrôlée ont permis de valider les tendances observées pour le piégeage. Une première série de résultats a montré que le piégeage de contaminants est fortement dépendant du profil de vitesse du lubrifiant. Un taux de piégeage très hétérogène a été observé sur des contacts avec une ellipticité transverse à l’écoulement variable. De manière surprenante, malgré une augmentation de la largeur de contact, une forte diminution du nombre de particules piégées a été observée dans des contacts elliptiques. Il a été démontré que cette diminution pouvait être imputée à la présence d’importants reflux de lubrifiant dans les contacts elliptiques larges. L’étude de contacts hybrides, nitrure de silicium–acier, a montré une bonne résistance à l’indentation du nitrure de silicium. Il est à noter que les contacts hybrides présentent des niveaux de piégeage similaire à un contact tout acier. / Contact lubrication is essential in a wide range of mechanical systems like rolling element bearings (REBs). A minimum quantity of clean lubricant all along the bearing life is necessary but difficult to ensure. In fact, lubricants contain inevitably wear debris or external particles, like dust. Carried by the lubricant in the vicinity of elastohydrodynamic (EHD) contacts, particles can be entrapped with disastrous consequences for contacting surfaces. Entrapment of micrometric particles in submicrometric contacting gaps means irreversible damages for the surfaces. Damages weaken the surfaces and reduce significantly the REBs lifetime. The goal of this work is to analyze the critical particle entrainments in the contact inlet. Entrapment of steel spherical particles was investigated from the numerical and experimental point of view. Firstly, the phenomenology of entrapment was explored with a new experimental method based on Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique installed on a tribometer. It enabled the evaluation of velocity profiles in the contact inlet and the tracking of particles within EHD contacts. Secondly, a numerical modelling of the inlet flow for EHD contacts, including the particle tracking, was developed. Finally, tests on a twin-disc machine with a controlled level of well-defined contamination were conducted to validate previous conclusions. A first set of results showed that particle entrapment is highly dependent on the lubricant velocity profile. Depending on contact geometry, from point to wide elliptical contacts, different entrapment probability were revealed. Surprisingly, increasing contact width with wide elliptical contacts leads to a drop of entrapped particles. It was demonstrated that this phenomenon is due to backflows occurring upstream from these contacts. Introducing a hybrid pair of contacting materials (silicon nitride–steel), dents on the surfaces due to entrapped particles were explored. It has been confirmed that silicon nitride surface offers a real ability to resist to indentation. It was also noticed that the entrapment probability for silicon nitride–steel contacts is equivalent to a steel–steel one.

A fairly new technology used to produce metallic components is powder metallurgy (PM). Among the advantages with this technique are decreased cost of production for complex-shaped parts, new alloys are made possible, reduced end processing, less material loss, and vibrational damping effects. The downside is the number of pores created which can alter the tribological properties of the material. The focus of this report is to investigate how lean PM steel behaves under tribological contacts.  Friction and wear will be investigated using a pin-on-disc setup to mimic the sliding part of a gear tooth mesh. Previous studies show that the amount of wear, and if the wear increases or decreases with increased density is dependent on the degree of porosity and the pore size. This means that the wear might be minimized by optimizing the number of pores in the material and their shape and size. The result of this study shows that the friction coefficient decreases with increasing density. The wear coefficient show signs of the same correlations but further tests are needed. The main wear comes from adhesive wear, with signs of abrasive wear. The amount of abrasive wear seems to increase with an increase in density, supporting previous studies claiming that pores can trap wear debris and decrease the number of abrasive particles in the contact.