Mastocitomas são neoplasias muito prevalentes em cães, e podem ser classificados em graus 1, 2 ou 3 de acordo com características morfológicas. O objetivo deste projeto foi investigar a presença de metástases de mastocitomas caninos de graus 1, 2 ou 3 em linfonodos regionais, procurando correlaciona-las ao intervalo livre de doença e à sobrevida dos animais. Para isto, avaliamos os parâmetros clínicos dos animais e das neoplasias em 57 cães portadores de mastocitoma cutâneo, registrando-se a porcentagem dos casos que apresentaram metástases, o grau histológico da neoplasia e a sobrevida dos animais. Realizou-se análise citológica dos linfonodos regionais previamente ao procedimento cirúrgico e posteriormente estes linfonodos foram excisados junto com a neoplasia primária, independentemente do resultado da citologia. Os tumores foram graduados por histopatologia e submetidos à análise imunoistoquímica com c-kit e Ki-67. Os linfonodos foram avaliados por histopatologia, por análise histoquímica e por imunoistoquímica com c-kit. Foi realizada comparação entre o diagnóstico citológico e histopatológico dos linfonodos quanto à presença de metástases e entre fatores prognósticos associados à neoplasia e a presença de metástase em linfonodo. A citologia demonstrou ser um bom exame na detecção de metástase em linfonodo de cães portadores de mastocitoma cutâneo, e foram observadas células metastáticas em 36 casos (36/46). Na análise histológica dos linfonodos, observamos um maior índice de metástase nos animais diagnosticados com mastocitomas de grau 3, segundo a graduação de Patnaik, e com mastocitomas de alto grau, segundo a graduação de Kiupel. No entanto, não encontramos uma associação significativa entre a presença de metástase em linfonodo e o grau histológico da neoplasia. O grau histológico associou-se à sobrevida independentemente da presença de metástase em linfonodo. Não houve associação entre o padrão de expressão da proteína KIT na neoplasia com a presença de metástase em linfonodo, nem a sobrevida. A utilização da imunoistoquímica em linfonodos metastáticos com c-kit foi um método eficaz, com predomínio do mesmo padrão de marcação da proteína KIT na neoplasia primária e no linfonodo. A expressão de Ki-67 na neoplasia correlacionou-se à presença de metástase em linfonodo e à uma menor sobrevida e intervalo livre de doença nos animais que apresentavam mastocitomas com índice de Ki-67 acima de 23. Na análise da sobrevida, não observamos diferença na sobrevida, nem no intervalo livre de doença, comparando-se os animais que apresentavam metástase em linfonodo e aqueles que não apresentavam, entretanto o índice de óbito e de progressão da doença neste estudo foram baixos. O intervalo livre de doença e sobrevida média não foram alcançados ao final do estudo. Os resultados sugerem que a presença de metástase em linfonodo não deve ser considerada como um fator prognóstico independente em cães diagnosticados com mastocitoma cutâneo, uma vez que outros fatores prognósticos, bem como a utilização de tratamentos adjuvantes, podem interferir de forma significativa na evolução destes pacientes. / Mast cell tumors are very prevalent in dogs, and can be classified in grades 1, 2 or 3 according to morphological characteristics.The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of metastases in regional lymph nodes of grade 1, 2 or 3 canine mast cell tumors, and correlate its presence to the disease-free interval and survival of the animals. For this, we evaluated the clinical parameters of animals and tumors in 57 dogs with cutaneous mast cell tumor, registering the percentage of cases with metastasis, histological grade of the tumor and survival of the animals. Cytological analysis of regional lymph nodes were performed prior to surgery and then these lymph nodes were excised along with the primary tumor, regardless of the result of cytology. The tumors were graded by histopathology and submitted to immunohistochemical analysis with c-kit and Ki-67. The lymph nodes were evaluated by histopathology, histochemistry and immunohistochemistry with c-kit. We compared the cytological and histopathological diagnosis of lymph nodes for the presence of metastases and compared prognostic factors associated with the primary tumor and the presence of metastasis in lymph node. Cytology proved to be a good method in detecting lymph node metastasis in dogs with cutaneous mast cell tumors and metastatic cells were observed in 36 cases (36/46). In the histological analysis of the lymph nodes, we observed a higher rate of metastasis in animals diagnosed with grade 3 mast cell tumors, according to the Patnaik grading system, and with high-grade mast cell tumors, according to the Kiupel grading system. However, we have not found a significant association between the presence of metastasis in lymph nodes and the histological grade of the tumors. Histological grade associated with survival independent of the presence of lymph node metastasis. In addition, there was no association between the pattern of KIT protein expression in the primary tumor and lymph node metastasies or survival. The use of immunohistochemistry in metastatic lymph nodes with c-kit is an effective method, with prevalence of the same KIT pattern in primary tumor and lymph node. The expression of Ki-67 in the primary tumor correlated with lymph node metastasis, survival and disease-free-time, and it was observed in animals in which mast cell tumors had a Ki-67 index higher than 23. In survival analysis, we observed no difference in survival or in disease-free interval, comparing the animals with lymph node metastasis and those who did not had, though the death rate and disease progression in this study were low. The disease-free interval and median survival were not reached at the end of the study. The results suggest that the presence of lymph node metastasis should not be considered as an independent prognostic factor in dogs diagnosed with cutaneous mast cell tumors, since other prognostic factors, as well as the establishment of adjuvant treatment, can interfere significantly with the progression of these patients.

Os linfonodos podem ser compreendidos como estruturas integrantes de dois sistemas orgânicos, o circulatório e o imunológico, apresentando estrutura mutável decorrente do tipo, da intensidade e do tempo da estimulação antigênica. As doenças nodais são complexas devido ao grande número de agentes que atingem os linfonodos via linfa e por causa da complexidade inerente do sistema imunológico e suas doenças próprias. A linfadenopatia é um achado clínico muito comum em cães, e o seu significado não deve ser desprezado. Inúmeros processos patológicos são observados no linfonodo canino, particularmente as hiperplasias reacionais benignas, linfadenites e os linfomas, e a sua total compreenção requer o conhecimento de histofisiologia, noções de imunologia, e biologia molecular. O conhecimento dos métodos diagnósticos disponíveis tem fundamental importância para o manejo do paciente, permitindo um tratamento acurado e eficiente / The lymph nodes may be known as integrants of two organic systems, circulatory and immunological, demonstrating mutable structure depending on the type, intensity, and time of antigenic stimulation. Nodal diseases are complex, because of the large number of diseases reaching nodes via lymph and because of the inherent complexity of the immune system and its own diseases. Lymphadenopathy is a common clinical finding, Many pathological processes has been found in canine lymph nodes, primarily benign reative hiperplasia, lymphadenitis and lymphomas, and your complete comprehension requires knowledge in histophysiology, immunology notions, and molecular biology. An understanding of the available diagnostic methods has fundamental importance for patient management, allowing an accurate and efficient treatment

Objetivos: Avaliar a eficácia da injeção intraoperatória para identificação do linfonodo sentinela (LS) em câncer de mama com o uso do Dextran 500-99m-Tecnécio (Tc) e azul patente. Analisar se as doses do radiofármaco, o IMC (índice de massa corporal) e o volume da mama influenciam no tempo para migração ao LS. Metodologia: Estudo prospectivo, realizado entre abril de 2008 e junho de 2009, que incluiu 74 biópsias de LS em pacientes com câncer de mama em estádios T1N0 e T2N0. Injetou-se, após indução anestésica, de 0,5 a 1,5 mCi de Dextran 500-99m-Tc filtrado 0,22 μm na região subareolar num volume de 5 ml e 2 ml de azul patente. Resultados: Identificou-se o LS em 100% dos casos. Um LS (1,35%) estava marcado apenas com o azul patente. A taxa de identificação com o “probe” foi de 98% (73/74 casos). A dose média de radiofármaco aplicada foi 0,97 mCi + 0,22. O tempo médio para marcação do LS foi de 10,7 minutos (+ 5,7min). Identificamos em média 1,66 LS com o radioisótopo. A dose aplicada não apresentou relação com o tempo para captação (p=0,73). Quanto maior o volume da mama e IMC, maior o tempo para captação na região axilar (Pearson Correlation r=0,393 p<0,01; r=0,469 p<0,01 - respectivamente). Conclusão: A injeção intraoperatória do radiofármaco é eficaz para identificação do LS em câncer de mama. O tempo para marcação do LS é maior em pacientes com IMC elevado e mamas volumosas. Doses maiores de radiofármaco não diminuem o tempo de migração. / Objectives: To determine the identification of sentinel lymph node (SLN) in breast cancer after intraoperative injection of Dextran 500‐99mTechnetium (Tc) and blue dye. To analyze if the doses of the radioisotope, body mass index (BMI) and breast volume influence the migration time of the SLN. Methodology: Prospective study between april 2008 and june 2009, which included 74 biopsies of SLN in patients with breast cancer in stages T1N0 and T2N0. Intraoperative injection after induction of general anesthesia, 0.5 to 1.5 mCi of dextran 500‐99m‐Tc filtered 0.22 μm in the subareolar region in a volume of 5 ml and 2 ml of blue dye. Results: We identified the SLN in 100% of cases. In one case (1.35%) the SLN was marked only with the blue dye. The SLN identification rate with the probe was 98% (73/74 cases). The mean dose of radioisotope injected was 0.97 + 0.22 mCi. The average time to mark the SLN was 10.7 minutes (+ 5.7 min). We identified an average 1.66 SLN with the radioisotope. The dose had no effect on the time to capture (p = 0.73). The larger breast volume and BMI, the greater the capture time in the axillary region (Pearson Correlation r=0.393 p <0.01, r=0.469 p <0.01 - respectively). Conclusion: Intraoperative injection of the radioisotope is effective for the identification the SLN in breast cancer. Time to mark the SLN is higher in patients with high BMI and large breasts. Higher doses of radioisotope do not decrease the migration time.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Objetivos. Desenvolver um modelo experimental para identificaÃÃo de linfonodo sentinela (LS) da mama da cadela com uso de corante azul de metileno e comparÃ-lo com o azul patente, controlados por tecnÃcio. MÃtodos. O trabalho foi realizado em 23 cadelas, tendo-se observado a marcaÃÃo dos LS do primeiro par superior de mamas ao se injetarem 0,2 ml de TecnÃcio 99m ligado ao fitato (Tc 99m) e 0,5 ml de azul patente Guerbet V 2,5 % nos espaÃos subpapilares das mamas direitas e 0,2 ml de Tc-99m e 0,5 ml do azul de metileno 1 % nos mesmos espaÃos das mamas esquerdas. Resultados. Na mama direita, as tÃcnicas de biopsia de LS quando utilizados o Tc-99m e azul patente foram concordantes. Dos 23 LS estudados, somente um nÃo corou nem foi captante. O azul patente foi eficaz em 100 % quando comparado com os dois mÃtodos associados. Na mama esquerda, dos 23 LS estudados, somente dois nÃo coraram e um nÃo foi captante, sendo esta diferenÃa estatisticamente nÃo significante. A tÃcnica de biopsia do LS utilizando-se o azul de metileno apresentou-se com eficÃcia de 91,3 % quando utilizado isoladamente e de 100 % quando associado ao Tc-99m. ConclusÃo. O uso do azul de metileno associado ao radiofÃrmaco pode ser considerado como tÃcnica potencial na pesquisa transoperatÃria do LS das mamas, sendo uma opÃÃo menos onerosa e com menores efeitos alergÃnicos do que o azul patente / Objetivos. Desenvolver um modelo experimental para identificaÃÃo de linfonodo sentinela (LS) da mama da cadela com uso de corante azul de metileno e comparÃ-lo com o azul patente, controlados por tecnÃcio. MÃtodos. O trabalho foi realizado em 23 cadelas, tendo-se observado a marcaÃÃo dos LS do primeiro par superior de mamas ao se injetarem 0,2 ml de TecnÃcio 99m ligado ao fitato (Tc 99m) e 0,5 ml de azul patente Guerbet V 2,5 % nos espaÃos subpapilares das mamas direitas e 0,2 ml de Tc-99m e 0,5 ml do azul de metileno 1 % nos mesmos espaÃos das mamas esquerdas. Resultados. Na mama direita, as tÃcnicas de biopsia de LS quando utilizados o Tc-99m e azul patente foram concordantes. Dos 23 LS estudados, somente um nÃo corou nem foi captante. O azul patente foi eficaz em 100 % quando comparado com os dois mÃtodos associados. Na mama esquerda, dos 23 LS estudados, somente dois nÃo coraram e um nÃo foi captante, sendo esta diferenÃa estatisticamente nÃo significante. A tÃcnica de biopsia do LS utilizando-se o azul de metileno apresentou-se com eficÃcia de 91,3 % quando utilizado isoladamente e de 100 % quando associado ao Tc-99m. ConclusÃo. O uso do azul de metileno associado ao radiofÃrmaco pode ser considerado como tÃcnica potencial na pesquisa transoperatÃria do LS das mamas, sendo uma opÃÃo menos onerosa e com menores efeitos alergÃnicos do que o azul patente / Objectives. To develop an experimental model for identification of sentinel lymph node (SLN) of breast bitch with the use of methylene blue and compares it with the patent blue, both associated with technetium. Methods. 23 dogs, there was the marking of the SLN of the first upper pair of breasts to inject 0.2 ml of Tc-99m phytate bound to (99m) and 0.5 ml of patent blue Guerbet V 2,5 % in subpapilar spaces right breast and 0.2 ml of 99mTc and 0.5 ml of 1% methylene blue in the same spaces left breast. Results. In the right breast biopsy techniques using 99mTc SLN and blue dye are in agreement. Of the 23 SLN studied, only one was not flushed nor uptake. The patent blue was effective in 100% when compared with the two methods together. The left breast of 23 SLN studied, only two non-stained and one was not uptake, this difference was not statistically significant. The SLN biopsy technique using methylene blue appeared with a 91.3% effectiveness when used alone and 100% when associated with 99mTc. Conclusion: The use of methylene blue associated with the radiotracer technique can be considered as potential research intraoperative SLN of breast, suggesting a less costly and less allergenic effects that blue patent. / Objectives. To develop an experimental model for identification of sentinel lymph node (SLN) of breast bitch with the use of methylene blue and compares it with the patent blue, both associated with technetium. Methods. 23 dogs, there was the marking of the SLN of the first upper pair of breasts to inject 0.2 ml of Tc-99m phytate bound to (99m) and 0.5 ml of patent blue Guerbet V 2,5 % in subpapilar spaces right breast and 0.2 ml of 99mTc and 0.5 ml of 1% methylene blue in the same spaces left breast. Results. In the right breast biopsy techniques using 99mTc SLN and blue dye are in agreement. Of the 23 SLN studied, only one was not flushed nor uptake. The patent blue was effective in 100% when compared with the two methods together. The left breast of 23 SLN studied, only two non-stained and one was not uptake, this difference was not statistically significant. The SLN biopsy technique using methylene blue appeared with a 91.3% effectiveness when used alone and 100% when associated with 99mTc. Conclusion: The use of methylene blue associated with the radiotracer technique can be considered as potential research intraoperative SLN of breast, suggesting a less costly and less allergenic effects that blue patent.

Os linfonodos podem ser compreendidos como estruturas integrantes de dois sistemas orgânicos, o circulatório e o imunológico, apresentando estrutura mutável decorrente do tipo, da intensidade e do tempo da estimulação antigênica. As doenças nodais são complexas devido ao grande número de agentes que atingem os linfonodos via linfa e por causa da complexidade inerente do sistema imunológico e suas doenças próprias. A linfadenopatia é um achado clínico muito comum em cães, e o seu significado não deve ser desprezado. Inúmeros processos patológicos são observados no linfonodo canino, particularmente as hiperplasias reacionais benignas, linfadenites e os linfomas, e a sua total compreenção requer o conhecimento de histofisiologia, noções de imunologia, e biologia molecular. O conhecimento dos métodos diagnósticos disponíveis tem fundamental importância para o manejo do paciente, permitindo um tratamento acurado e eficiente / The lymph nodes may be known as integrants of two organic systems, circulatory and immunological, demonstrating mutable structure depending on the type, intensity, and time of antigenic stimulation. Nodal diseases are complex, because of the large number of diseases reaching nodes via lymph and because of the inherent complexity of the immune system and its own diseases. Lymphadenopathy is a common clinical finding, Many pathological processes has been found in canine lymph nodes, primarily benign reative hiperplasia, lymphadenitis and lymphomas, and your complete comprehension requires knowledge in histophysiology, immunology notions, and molecular biology. An understanding of the available diagnostic methods has fundamental importance for patient management, allowing an accurate and efficient treatment

Mastocitomas são neoplasias muito prevalentes em cães, e podem ser classificados em graus 1, 2 ou 3 de acordo com características morfológicas. O objetivo deste projeto foi investigar a presença de metástases de mastocitomas caninos de graus 1, 2 ou 3 em linfonodos regionais, procurando correlaciona-las ao intervalo livre de doença e à sobrevida dos animais. Para isto, avaliamos os parâmetros clínicos dos animais e das neoplasias em 57 cães portadores de mastocitoma cutâneo, registrando-se a porcentagem dos casos que apresentaram metástases, o grau histológico da neoplasia e a sobrevida dos animais. Realizou-se análise citológica dos linfonodos regionais previamente ao procedimento cirúrgico e posteriormente estes linfonodos foram excisados junto com a neoplasia primária, independentemente do resultado da citologia. Os tumores foram graduados por histopatologia e submetidos à análise imunoistoquímica com c-kit e Ki-67. Os linfonodos foram avaliados por histopatologia, por análise histoquímica e por imunoistoquímica com c-kit. Foi realizada comparação entre o diagnóstico citológico e histopatológico dos linfonodos quanto à presença de metástases e entre fatores prognósticos associados à neoplasia e a presença de metástase em linfonodo. A citologia demonstrou ser um bom exame na detecção de metástase em linfonodo de cães portadores de mastocitoma cutâneo, e foram observadas células metastáticas em 36 casos (36/46). Na análise histológica dos linfonodos, observamos um maior índice de metástase nos animais diagnosticados com mastocitomas de grau 3, segundo a graduação de Patnaik, e com mastocitomas de alto grau, segundo a graduação de Kiupel. No entanto, não encontramos uma associação significativa entre a presença de metástase em linfonodo e o grau histológico da neoplasia. O grau histológico associou-se à sobrevida independentemente da presença de metástase em linfonodo. Não houve associação entre o padrão de expressão da proteína KIT na neoplasia com a presença de metástase em linfonodo, nem a sobrevida. A utilização da imunoistoquímica em linfonodos metastáticos com c-kit foi um método eficaz, com predomínio do mesmo padrão de marcação da proteína KIT na neoplasia primária e no linfonodo. A expressão de Ki-67 na neoplasia correlacionou-se à presença de metástase em linfonodo e à uma menor sobrevida e intervalo livre de doença nos animais que apresentavam mastocitomas com índice de Ki-67 acima de 23. Na análise da sobrevida, não observamos diferença na sobrevida, nem no intervalo livre de doença, comparando-se os animais que apresentavam metástase em linfonodo e aqueles que não apresentavam, entretanto o índice de óbito e de progressão da doença neste estudo foram baixos. O intervalo livre de doença e sobrevida média não foram alcançados ao final do estudo. Os resultados sugerem que a presença de metástase em linfonodo não deve ser considerada como um fator prognóstico independente em cães diagnosticados com mastocitoma cutâneo, uma vez que outros fatores prognósticos, bem como a utilização de tratamentos adjuvantes, podem interferir de forma significativa na evolução destes pacientes. / Mast cell tumors are very prevalent in dogs, and can be classified in grades 1, 2 or 3 according to morphological characteristics.The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of metastases in regional lymph nodes of grade 1, 2 or 3 canine mast cell tumors, and correlate its presence to the disease-free interval and survival of the animals. For this, we evaluated the clinical parameters of animals and tumors in 57 dogs with cutaneous mast cell tumor, registering the percentage of cases with metastasis, histological grade of the tumor and survival of the animals. Cytological analysis of regional lymph nodes were performed prior to surgery and then these lymph nodes were excised along with the primary tumor, regardless of the result of cytology. The tumors were graded by histopathology and submitted to immunohistochemical analysis with c-kit and Ki-67. The lymph nodes were evaluated by histopathology, histochemistry and immunohistochemistry with c-kit. We compared the cytological and histopathological diagnosis of lymph nodes for the presence of metastases and compared prognostic factors associated with the primary tumor and the presence of metastasis in lymph node. Cytology proved to be a good method in detecting lymph node metastasis in dogs with cutaneous mast cell tumors and metastatic cells were observed in 36 cases (36/46). In the histological analysis of the lymph nodes, we observed a higher rate of metastasis in animals diagnosed with grade 3 mast cell tumors, according to the Patnaik grading system, and with high-grade mast cell tumors, according to the Kiupel grading system. However, we have not found a significant association between the presence of metastasis in lymph nodes and the histological grade of the tumors. Histological grade associated with survival independent of the presence of lymph node metastasis. In addition, there was no association between the pattern of KIT protein expression in the primary tumor and lymph node metastasies or survival. The use of immunohistochemistry in metastatic lymph nodes with c-kit is an effective method, with prevalence of the same KIT pattern in primary tumor and lymph node. The expression of Ki-67 in the primary tumor correlated with lymph node metastasis, survival and disease-free-time, and it was observed in animals in which mast cell tumors had a Ki-67 index higher than 23. In survival analysis, we observed no difference in survival or in disease-free interval, comparing the animals with lymph node metastasis and those who did not had, though the death rate and disease progression in this study were low. The disease-free interval and median survival were not reached at the end of the study. The results suggest that the presence of lymph node metastasis should not be considered as an independent prognostic factor in dogs diagnosed with cutaneous mast cell tumors, since other prognostic factors, as well as the establishment of adjuvant treatment, can interfere significantly with the progression of these patients.

<p>The two purposes of this thesis were to evaluate new diagnostic techniques of lymphnode staging in invasive bladder cancer and to evaluate the results of neoadjuvant chemotherapy in invasive bladder cancer.</p><p>Sentinel node detection was performed in 13 patients in preparation for radical cystectomy. The method showed to be feasible, and the results displayed the occurrence of metastatic nodes outside the traditional area of diagnostic dissection in a majority of patients. Four patients were metastasized, each one with one metastatic node detected with the help of the sentinel node procedure.</p><p>Four randomly selected sentinel nodes from four different unmetastasized patients were compared to the four metastatic sentinel nodes from the first series. After microdissection, p53 genomic structure, immunohistochemical expression and MVD (microvessel density) were assessed in the primary tumors and corresponding sentinel nodes. The results suggested that invasive bladder cancer mainly involved monoclonal proliferation with predominantly homogenous biomarker profile, but there were also signs of clonal evolution.</p><p>The Nordic Cystectomy Trial 2 (NCT2), is a randomized prospective trial investigating the possible benefit of neoadjuvant chemotherapy versus cystectomy only, in 311 eligible patients with urinary bladder cancer T2-T4aNXM0.Evaluation of overall survival did not show any statistically significant benefit in the experimental arm. This probably due to lack of statistical power.</p><p>To increase the statistical power we performed a combined analysis of randomized patients from both the Nordic Cystectomy Trial 1 (NCT1) and NCT2, n = 620. Eligible patients from NCT1 had T1G3, T2-T4a NXM0 urinary bladder cancer. Standard meta-analysis methods were used. The only end-point analysed was overall survival. Neoadjuvant platinum based combination therapy was associated with a 20 % reduction in the relative hazard in probability of death.</p>

The two purposes of this thesis were to evaluate new diagnostic techniques of lymphnode staging in invasive bladder cancer and to evaluate the results of neoadjuvant chemotherapy in invasive bladder cancer. Sentinel node detection was performed in 13 patients in preparation for radical cystectomy. The method showed to be feasible, and the results displayed the occurrence of metastatic nodes outside the traditional area of diagnostic dissection in a majority of patients. Four patients were metastasized, each one with one metastatic node detected with the help of the sentinel node procedure. Four randomly selected sentinel nodes from four different unmetastasized patients were compared to the four metastatic sentinel nodes from the first series. After microdissection, p53 genomic structure, immunohistochemical expression and MVD (microvessel density) were assessed in the primary tumors and corresponding sentinel nodes. The results suggested that invasive bladder cancer mainly involved monoclonal proliferation with predominantly homogenous biomarker profile, but there were also signs of clonal evolution. The Nordic Cystectomy Trial 2 (NCT2), is a randomized prospective trial investigating the possible benefit of neoadjuvant chemotherapy versus cystectomy only, in 311 eligible patients with urinary bladder cancer T2-T4aNXM0.Evaluation of overall survival did not show any statistically significant benefit in the experimental arm. This probably due to lack of statistical power. To increase the statistical power we performed a combined analysis of randomized patients from both the Nordic Cystectomy Trial 1 (NCT1) and NCT2, n = 620. Eligible patients from NCT1 had T1G3, T2-T4a NXM0 urinary bladder cancer. Standard meta-analysis methods were used. The only end-point analysed was overall survival. Neoadjuvant platinum based combination therapy was associated with a 20 % reduction in the relative hazard in probability of death.

<p>Mast cells, best known for their pathologic role in allergy, have recently been shown to have key roles in the initiation of adaptive immune responses. These cells are located throughout the body just beneath barriers separating host from environment, possess multiple pathogen recognition systems, and store large quantities of fully active inflammatory mediators. These key features make them uniquely situated to act as sentinels of immunity, releasing the very earliest alarm signals when a pathogen is present. As a testament to the importance of these cells, mast cell-deficient mice have suboptimal immune responses, and mast cell activators can act as potent adjuvants for experimental immunizations. Specifically, mast cells have been shown to enhance the number of naive lymphocytes in infection site-draining lymph nodes, and to encourage the migration of dendritic cells to responding lymph nodes.</p><p>Although infections usually occur at peripheral sites, adaptive immune responses are initiated in distant lymph nodes. Despite the distance, signals from the site of infection result in dramatic, rapid reorganization of the node, including massive recruitment of naive lymphocytes from the circulation and extensive vascular restructuring to accommodate the increase in size. How such signals reach the lymph node is not well understood.</p><p>When mast cells degranulate, in addition to releasing soluble mediators such as histamine, they expel large, stable, insoluble particles composed primarily of heparin and cationic proteins. The work presented herein demonstrates that these particles act as extracellular chaperones for inflammatory mediators, protecting them from dilution into the interstitial space, degradation, and interaction with non-target host cells and molecules. The data show clearly that mast cells release such particles, that they are highly stable, that they contain tumor necrosis factor (a critically important immunomodulator), and that they can traffic from peripheral sites to draining lymph nodes via lymphatic vessels. Furthermore, extensive biochemical characterization of purified mast cell-derived particles was performed. Finally, evidence is presented that such particles can elicit lymph node enlargement, an infection-associated phenomenon that favors the development of adaptive immunity, by delivering peripheral TNF to draining lymph nodes. </p><p>This signaling concept, that particles may chaperone signals between distant sites, also has important implications for adjuvant design. The evidence presented here shows that encapsulation of TNF into synthetic particles similar to mast cell-derived particles greatly enhances its potency for eliciting lymph node enlargement, an indication that adaptive immunity may be improved. This delivery system should ensure that more adjuvant arrives in the draining lymph node intact, where it would lead to changes favorable to the development of the immune response. Such a system would also facilitate the delivery of multi-component adjuvants that would act synergistically at the level of the lymph node when gradually released from microparticle carriers. An additional advantage of microparticle encapsulation is that vaccine formulations of this type may require much lower doses of expensive antigen and adjuvants.</p><p>The delivery of inflammatory mediators to lymph nodes during immune responses may be an important general feature of host defense. Although the action of mediators of peripheral origin on draining lymph nodes has been described before, this is the first demonstration of a specific adaptation to deliver such mediators. Not only is the characterization of mast cell-derived particles important to basic immunology, but mimicking this adaptation may also lead to improved therapeutics.</p> / Dissertation

<p>Lymph nodes are organs of efficiency. Once activated, they essentially function to optimize and accelerate the production of the adaptive immune response, which has the potential to determine survival of the host during an initial infection and protect against repeated infections, should specific and appropriate immunological memory be sufficiently induced. We now have an understanding of the fundamental structure of lymph nodes and many of the interactions that occur within them throughout this process. Yet, lymph nodes are dynamic and malleable organs and much remains to be investigated with regards to their responses to various types of challenges. In this work, we examined multiple inflammatory scenarios and sought to understand the complex ways that lymph nodes can be externally targeted to impact immunity. First, we outline a novel mechanism of cellular communication, where cytokine messages from the periphery are delivered to draining lymph nodes during inflammation. These signals are sent as particles, released by mast cells, and demonstrate the ability of the infected tissue to communicate to lymph nodes and shape their responses. Based on these interactions, we also explored the ability to therapeutically or prophylactically modulate lymph node function, using bioengineered particles based on mast cell granules, containing encapsulated cytokines. When we used these particles as a vaccine adjuvant, we were able to polarize adaptive immune responses, such as to promote a Th1 phenotype, or enhance a specific attribute of the immune response, such as the production of high avidity antibodies. We then explore three examples of lymph node-targeting pathogens: Salmonella typhimurium, Yersinia pestis and Dengue virus. Each of these pathogens has a well-characterized lifecycle including colonization of draining lymph node tissue. In the case of S. typhimurim, we report that the virulence this pathogen depends on a specific shut down of the chemotactic signals in the lymph node that are required to maintain appropriate cellular localization within it. Our results demonstrate that these architecture changes allow S. typhimurim to target the adaptive immune process in lymph nodes and contribute to its spread in vivo and lethality to the host. With Y. pestis, similar targeting of cellular trafficking pathways occurs through the modulation of chemokine expression. Y. pestis appears to use the host's cellular trafficking pathways to spread to lymph nodes in two distinct waves, first exploiting dendritic cell movement to lymph nodes and then enhancing monocyte chemoattractants to replicate within monocytes in draining lymph nodes. These processes also promote bacterial spread in vivo and we further demonstrate that blocking monocyte chemotaxis can prolong the host's survival. In the third example of pathogen challenge, we report for the first time that mast cells can contribute functionally to immunosurveillance for viral pathogen, here, promoting cellular trafficking of innate immune cells, including NK cells, and limiting the spread of virus to draining lymph nodes. For each of these three examples of lymph node targeting by microbial pathogens, we provide data that modulation of cellular trafficking to and within lymph nodes can drastically influence the nature of the adaptive immune response and, therefore, the appropriateness of that response for meeting a unique infectious challenge. Cumulatively this work highlights that a balance exists between host and pathogen-driven modulation of lymph nodes, a key aspect of which is movement of cells within and into this organ. Cytokine and chemokine pathways are an area of vulnerability for the host when faced with host-adapted pathogens, yet the lymph node's underlying plasticity and the observation that slight modulations can be beneficial or detrimental to immunity also suggests the targeting of these pathways with therapeutic intentions and during vaccine design.</p> / Dissertation