Hepatocarcinoma cancer (HCC) is one the most common visceral malignancies in Taiwan, which has a very high incidence and a devastatingly poor prognosis. BMP4, belonging to the TGF-£] super-family of proteins is a multifunctional cytokine, known to exert its biological effects through SMAD and non-SMAD dependent pathways and is also known to be involved in human carcinogenesis. However, the effects of the BMP4 signaling in liver carcinogenesis are not yet clearly defined. In this study, we first demonstrate that BMP4 and its receptor, BMPR1A, are over-expressed in a majority of primary HCC and promote the growth and migration of HCC cell lines in vitro. We also further identify that BMP4 can induce HCC CDK1 and cyclinB1 up-regulation to accelerate cell cycle progression. Our study indicates that the induction of HCC cell proliferation is independent on the SMAD signaling pathway, since Smad4 knockdown of BMP4 induced HCC cell lines still leads to the up-regulation of CDK1 and cyclinB1 expression in HCC. Using MEK kinase selective inhibitors, the induction of CDK1 and cyclinB1 mRNA and protein were shown to be dependent on the activation of MEK/ERK signaling. In vivo xenograft studies confirmed that the BMPR1A- knockdown cells were significantly less tumorigenic than control groups. Taken together, our findings show that the up-regulation of BMP4 and BMPR1A in HCC promote the proliferation and metastasis of HCC cells and that CDK1 and cyclinB1 are important, SMAD-independent molecular targets in BMP4 signaling pathways during the HCC tumorigenesis. We propose here that BMP4 signaling pathways may have potential as new therapeutic targets, in HCC treatment.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第23382号 / 医博第4751号 / 新制||医||1052(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 伊藤 貴浩, 教授 滝田 順子, 教授 江藤 浩之 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

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Activation of the MAPK cascade during mitosis is critical for spindle assembly and normal mitotic progression. The underlying regulatory mechanisms that control activation of the MEK/MAPK cascade during mitosis are poorly understood. The goal of my dissertation research is to identify the MEK kinase responsible for activation of the MAPK cascade during mitosis and to elucidate the biochemical mechanisms that regulate its activity. In the described herein work I purified and characterized the MEK kinase activity present in M-phase arrested Xenopus egg extracts. I demonstrate that B-Raf is the critical MEK kinase required for activation of the MAPK pathway at mitosis. Consistent with this, I show that B-Raf is activated in an M-phase dependent manner. Further, I provide data linking Cdk1/cyclin B to mitotic activation of B-Raf. Cdk1/cyclin B associates with and phosphorylates B-Raf in M-phase arrested extracts and directly targets Xenopus B-Raf in vitro at a conserved Ser-144 residue. Phosphorylation at Ser-144 is critical for M-phase dependent activation of B-Raf and for B-Raf's ability to trigger activation of the MAPK cascade at mitosis. Finally, I demonstrate that mitotic B-Raf undergoes feedback phosphorylation by MAPK at its conserved C-terminal SPKTP motif. Mutation of both phosphorylation sites within the SPKTP sequence to alanines increases activity of mitotic B-Raf. Further, inhibition or over-activation of MAPK during mitosis enhances or diminishes B-Raf activity, respectively. These results indicate that MAPK-mediated feedback phosphorylation negatively regulates B-Raf activity. Additionally, I show that active mitotic B-Raf exists in large multi-protein complex(s). By utilizing a proteomics approach I identify a set of proteins, which potentially associate with B-Raf at M-phase. Future studies are necessary to elucidate the involvement of these proteins in regulating B-Raf mitotic functions. In summary, my dissertation studies demonstrate that B-Raf activates MAPK signaling at mitosis and undergoes an M-phase dependent regulation. I propose that B-Raf has important functions at mitosis that contributes to its overall role in promoting cell proliferation.

Staphylococcus aureus est une bactérie Gram positive qui colonise la peau des animaux et des humains sains. Dans certaines conditions, telles que la perturbation du microbiote, S. aureus peut induire différentes maladies en déjouant les fonctions de défenses de la cellule hôte. Récemment, notre équipe a montré que les S. aureus méthiciline-résistant (MRSA) souche MW2 (USA400) étaient capables d’induire un retard de la transition de phase G2/M des cellules HeLa. Dans ce travail, nous avons démontré que cette action est initiée par des composants du surnagent de culture de S. aureus.Différentes fractions de surnagents de culture de MW2 ont été obtenues par la chromatographie d’exclusion et analysées par la spectrométrie de masse. Ces techniques nous ont permis d’identifier les peptides phenol-soluble modulins alpha (PSMa) comme responsables du retard du cycle cellulaire des cellules hôtes. Confirmant l’implication de ces modulines, la souche LAC¿psma déficiente en PSMa 1 – 4, n’a pas affecté la progression normale du cyle cellulaire de cellules epitheliales HeLa. De plus, le traitement de ces cellules avec des PSMa1 et PSMa3 synthétiques a induit un retard de la transition de phase G2/M qui a été associé à la diminution de l’expression de gènes codant des défensines ß. Enfin, nous avons démontré que la souche MW2 diminue le niveau d’optineurine et d’optineurine phosphorylée sur la sérine-177, une protéine hôte qui est impliquée dans la transition de phase G2/M. Ce travail représente une étape importante de la compréhension du mécanisme d’interférence de S. aureus / Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive bacterium that colonizes the skin of healthy animals and humans. In certain conditions, including the disruption of the commensal microbiota, S aureus can cause different diseases by deviating the host defense functions. Recently, our group has shown that the methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) MW2 (USA400) strain causes delay in the transition of the G2/M phase of HeLa cells. In the present work, we demonstrated that this action is initiated by components of the supernatant of the S. aureus culture. Different supernatant fractions were obtained by size exclusion chromatography and were analyzed by mass spectrometry, which allowed to identify phenol-soluble modulins alpha (PSMa) as responsible for the host cell cycle delay.Confirming the involvement of these modulins in the delay, the MRSA LAC¿psma strain, which is deficient in PSMa1–4, did not affect the normal progression of the cycle in HeLa cells. In addition, the treatment of these cells with synthetic PSMa1 and PSMa3 caused delay in the transition of the G2/M phase associated with the decreased production of host ß-defensins. Lastly, we demonstrated that the MW2 strain, which produce PSMa, decreases the level of optineurin and optineurin phosphorylated at serine 177, a host protein that is involved in the G2/M phase transition. The work conducted in this thesis represents an important achievement in the understanding of how S. aureus interferes with the host cell cycle, revealing a new role for PSMa produced by this bacterium.

Les Dinoflagellés sont des eucaryotes unicellulaires photosynthétiques qui participent à une production importante du phytoplancton et sont donc à la base de la chaîne alimentaire. Bien qu’ils soient des eucaryotes, leur organisation génétique présente plusieurs particularités qui leur sont singulières. Contrairement à tous les eucaryotes chez qui les chromosomes ne se condensent qu'au moment de la mitose, les chromosomes des dinoflagellés restent condensés pendant tout le cycle cellulaire. La mitose des dinoflagellés est distinguée de la mitose ordinaire des cellules eucaryotes. Le noyau de Lingulodinium polyedrum reste intact et son enveloppe nucléaire ne se brise pas pendant la mitose. Les microtubules devraient ainsi se coller à la membrane nucléaire du côté du cytoplasme pour tenter de s'accrocher aux chromosomes qui eux sont attachés à la surface interne de la membrane, le fuseau mitotique traverse donc le noyau par une ou plusieurs invaginations nucléaires ou canaux. Lingulodinium polyedrum est considéré un organisme modèle pour étudier les rythmes circadiens. Cette étude illustre les changements morphologiques des chromosomes durant les différents stades de la mitose, en utilisant le microscope électronique à transmission et microscope à fluorescence. Le transcriptôme de Lingulodinium polyedrum a été utilisé pour recenser les composants régulateurs conservés contrôlant l’entrée en phase S ou en phase M, telles que des cyclines ou des Cdks. Mots-clés : Lingulodinium polyedrum, dinoflagellé, cycle cellulaire, rythme circadien, mitose, phase S, phase M, cycline, CDK, transcriptome / Dinoflagellates are unicellular photosynthetic eukaryotes comprising a major part of the phytoplankton and thus, represent the foundation of the food chain. Although dinoflagellates are eukaryotes, their genetic organization has several features which are unique to them. Unlike all eukaryotes in which the chromosomes condense only at the moment of mitosis, dinoflagellates chromosomes stay condensed throughout the cell cycle. Furthermore, the mitosis of dinoflagellates is distinguished from the ordinary mitosis of eukaryotic cells. The nucleus of Lingulodinium polyedrum remains intact and its nuclear envelope does not break down during mitosis. Microtubules stick to the nuclear membrane on the side of the cytoplasm and link to the chromosomes that are attached to the inner surface of the membrane by transmembrane proteins. The mitotic spindle therefore passes through the nucleus by one or more nuclear invaginations or channels. Lingulodinium polyedrum is considered as model organism for studying circadian rhythms among which is featured the cell cycle. This study illustrates the morphological changes of chromosomes during the various stages of mitosis, by transmission electron microscope and a fluorescence microscope. The transcriptome of Lingulodinium polyedrum was used to identify conserved regulatory components controlling entry into S-phase or M phase, such as cyclins or Cdks.

Un couple canadien sur six aurait des problèmes de fertilité. Jusqu’à 70% des embryons humains générés en clinique de fertilité possèdent des cellules avec un nombre erroné de chromosomes appelées cellules aneuploïdes. L’aneuploïdie est le résultat d’une mauvaise ségrégation des chromosomes durant la division cellulaire et réduit les chances de grossesse à terme. Il fut démontré que les embryons ont un temps de division différent et que ce temps peut être un indicateur de sa santé. Cependant, comment cette division affecte l’embryon au niveau cellulaire reste à démontrer. Chez les cellules somatiques, le temps de divisions cellulaires (phase-M) est directement lié à l'intégrité chromosomique. Plus précisément, une phase-M prolongée peut provoquer une séparation prématurée des chromatides sœurs appelée "fatigue des cohésions" (CF). Indépendamment, divers mécanismes réduisent les erreurs de ségrégation des chromosomes. L’un d’entre eux, le point de contrôle de l'horloge mitotique (mitotic-timer) fut décrit chez les cellules somatiques comme actif après une prolongation de la phase-M provoquant ainsi un arrêt G1/S des cellules filles. L’existence du mitotic-timer et la présence de CF chez l'embryon de mammifère reste inconnues. Des travaux suggèrent que certains points de contrôle sont défaillants chez les embryons. Ici, nous faisons l’hypothèse que les embryons préimplantatoires n'ont pas de mitotic-timer et examinons leurs capacités de division après une exposition à des agents perturbateurs de la mitose. La durée de la phase-M fut manipulée chez des embryons de souris au stade deux-cellules avec un inhibiteur du complexe de promotion de l’anaphase. L'imagerie de cellules fixées et vivantes fut réalisée sur un microscope confocal et à fluorescence inversée. Contrairement aux cellules somatiques, les embryons préimplantatoires ne parviennent pas à activer le mitotic-timer après une phase-M prolongée de 6 heures au stade 2-cellules, et ils se développent jusqu'au stade blastocyste. Cette même extension conduit à la CF, qui induit des défauts de ségrégation chromosomique. En revanche, une extension extrême (14 heures) de la phase-M provoque un arrêt du cycle cellulaire à l'interphase suivante. Également, une accumulation de dommages à l'ADN est observée avec l'individualisation des chromosomes en phase-M. Pour résumer, une prolongation extrême de la phase-M provoque un arrêt du cycle cellulaire. Une phase-M de 6 heures suffit à provoquer des erreurs de ségrégation, mais n’active pas le mitotic-timer et conduit ainsi à une instabilité chromosomique. Par conséquent, comme les embryons sont sensibles à la CF, nous nous sommes demandé si les œufs en métaphase II, où le fuseau persiste pendant plusieurs heures, pourraient également être sujets à la CF. Pour tester cela, nous avons examiné des ovocytes de souris jeunes (2-3 mois) et âgées (16 mois), ainsi que des ovocytes humains. De manière frappante, la fréquence des chromosomes mal alignés n'était pas associée à la durée de l'arrêt en métaphase II, quel que soit l'espèce ou l'âge. En conclusion, contrairement aux embryons, les ovocytes en métaphase-II semblent protégés de la CF pour garantir l'intégrité du génome pendant l'arrêt prolongé qui précède la fécondation. Nous pensons que l’intégration de la durée de la phase-M pourrait améliorer la sélection des embryons viable en clinique. / One in six Canadian couples struggle with infertility. Nearly 70% of human embryos generated in fertility clinics contain aneuploid cells, possessing the wrong number of chromosomes due to errors during embryonic cell division in chromosome segregation. Aneuploidy reduces the risk of full-term pregnancy and is the cause of various genetic disorders. It has been reported that the timing of cell divisions in the early embryo is variable and may be an indicator of embryo health, but we have a limited understanding of how mitotic timing in the embryo impacts the embryo on a cellular level. In somatic cells the timing of cell divisions has recently been shown to relate directly to chromosome integrity. Specifically, extended M-phase can cause premature separation of sister chromatids, known as "cohesion fatigue" (CF). In addition, several checkpoints operate to reduce chromosome segregation errors. The mitotic timer (MitClock) has been described in somatic cells where an extended duration of M-phase can cause a subsequent G1/S arrest. But whether MitClock can operate in the mammalian embryo, and whether the embryo is susceptible to CF, are unknown. Other work suggests that well characterised genetic integrity-protecting pathways may be lacking in embryos. We therefore hypothesized that early mammalian embryos lack a mitotic clock checkpoint and we aimed to examine their ability to divide following exposure to mitotic disrupting agents. To address these questions, M-phase duration was manipulated in two-cell stage mice embryos with an anaphase promoting complex inhibitor. Fixed-cell and live imaging were performed on confocal and inverted fluorescence microscopes. In contrast to somatic cells, preimplantation embryos fail to activate MitClock after 6-hours in a prolonged M-phase at the 2-cell stage, and embryos develop to blastocysts. Importantly however, this same extension leads to CF, which induces chromosome segregation defects. In contrast, an extreme (14 hour) M-phase extension causes cell cycle arrest in the subsequent interphase, which we show involves the accumulation of DNA damage and is potentiated by chromosome individualisation in M-phase. To summarise, while extreme elongation of M-phase can cause cell cycle arrest, even a 6-hour M-phase is enough to elicit CF and chromosome segregation errors. The 6-hour M-phase fails to activate a mitotic clock checkpoint and thus leads to chromosomal instability. As we have shown that embryos are susceptible to CF, we wondered whether Metaphase-II eggs, where the spindle persists for several hours, might also be prone to CF. To test this, we examined oocytes from young (2-3 months) and old (16 months) mice, as well as human oocytes matured from GV stage from patients undergoing fertility treatment. Strikingly, the frequency of misaligned chromosomes was not associated with the length of Metaphase-II arrest regardless of species, or age. We conclude that, contrary to what we found to be the case for mitotic M-phases in the early embryo, the chromosomes on Metaphase-II spindles are protected from cohesion fatigue to protect genome integrity during the prolonged Metaphase-II arrest that precedes fertilization. Altogether, we speculate that integration of M-phase lengths into embryo selection algorithms may in future improve the ability to select the most viable embryo in the clinic.

Yes / Topoisomerase inhibitors are in common use as chemotherapeutic agents although they can display reduced efficacy in chemotherapy-resistant tumours, which have inactivated DNA damage response (DDR) genes, such as ATM and TP53. Here, we characterise the cellular response to the dual-acting agent, Alchemix (ALX), which is a modified anthraquinone that functions as a topoisomerase inhibitor as well as an alkylating agent. We show that ALX induces a robust DDR at nano-molar concentrations and this is mediated primarily through ATR- and DNA-PK- but not ATM-dependent pathways, despite DNA double strand breaks being generated after prolonged exposure to the drug. Interestingly, exposure of epithelial tumour cell lines to ALX in vitro resulted in potent activation of the G2/M checkpoint, which after a prolonged arrest, was bypassed allowing cells to progress into mitosis where they ultimately died by mitotic catastrophe. We also observed effective killing of lymphoid tumour cell lines in vitro following exposure to ALX, although, in contrast, this tended to occur via activation of a p53-independent apoptotic pathway. Lastly, we validate the effectiveness of ALX as a chemotherapeutic agent in vivo by demonstrating its ability to cause a significant reduction in tumour cell growth, irrespective of TP53 status, using a mouse leukaemia xenograft model. Taken together, these data demonstrate that ALX, through its dual action as an alkylating agent and topoisomerase inhibitor, represents a novel anti-cancer agent that could be potentially used clinically to treat refractory or relapsed tumours, particularly those harbouring mutations in DDR genes.