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Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In this study the recently proposed slip-synchronous permanent magnet generator (SS-PMG), is considered as an alternative to other wind generator topologies. The SS-PMG is connected directly to the grid without the need for a power electronic converter and it can also be connected directly to the turbine without a gearbox. Due to the SS-PMG requiring no gearbox or power electronic converter it is evident that this type of generator have a significant advantage regarding reduced maintenance and operation costs. The SS-PMG consist of two integrated permanent magnet generating units, a directly turbine connected slip permanent magnet generator (slip-PMG) and a directly grid connected permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG). In this, study many of the implementation aspects of the SS-PMG are addressed. It is found that the short-circuit torque and current profiles of both the slip-PMG and PMSG are significantly influenced by the end-winding inductance and PM end-effects. A new analytical method is proposed for the calculation of the end-winding inductance in this study and a new approach is devised to take the PM end-effects into account. A very important aspect considered in this thesis, is the stability of the SS-PMG connected directly to the grid regarding turbine, generator and grid voltage disturbances, which influences the design of the PMSG and slip-PMG units. Furthermore, it is important that the final SS-PMG design comply to the relevant grid code specifications. For both the PMSG and slip-PMG an extensive design optimisation is done, with several novel wind generator concepts introduced. In this study the dynamic behaviour, grid connection aspects and operational principles of the SSPMG are verified by means of practical tests in the laboratory and for the SS-PMG interfaced with an existing 15 kW wind turbine system in the field. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie studie word die onlangs voorgestelde, glip-sinchroon permanent magneet generator (GSPMG), oorweeg as ’n alternatief vir ander wind generator topologieë. Die GS-PMG word direk aan die netwerk gekonnekteer sonder die nodigheid van ’n drywingselektroniese omsetter en dit kan ook direk aan die turbine gekoppel word sonder ’n ratkas. Omdat die GS-PMG geen ratkas of drywingselektroniese omsetter benodig nie, is dit duidelik dat hierdie tipe generator ’n geweldige voordeel het rakende verminderde onderhoud en operasionele kostes. Die GS-PMG bestaan uit twee geïntegreerde permanent magneet generator eenhede, ’n direkte turbine gekoppelde glip permanent magneet generator (glip-PMG) en ’n direkte netwerk gekonnekteerde permanent magneet sinchroon generator (PMSG). In hierdie studie word baie van die implementerings aspekte van die SS-PMG aangeraak. Daar word gevind dat die kortsluit draaimoment en stroom profiele van beide die glip- PMG en PMSG geweldig deur die end-wikkeling induktansie en PM randeffekte beïnvloed word. Dus, word ’n nuwe analitiese metode voorgestel vir die uitwerk van die end-wikkeling induktansie in hierdie studie en ’n nuwe benadering word voorgestel om die PM randeffekte in ag te neem. ’n Baie belangrike aspek om te oorweeg in hierdie tesis, is die stabiliteit van die GS-PMG direk aan die netwerk gekoppel rakende turbine, generator en netwerkspanning steurnisse, wat die ontwerp van die PMSG en glip-PMG eenhede beïnvloed. Dit is ook belangrik dat die finale SS-PMG ontwerp voldoen aan die relevante netwerkkode spesifikasies. Vir beide die PMSG en glip-PMG word ’n deeglike ontwerpsoptimering gedoen, met talle nuwe wind generator konsepte voorgestel. In hierdie studie word die dinamiese gedrag, netwerk konneksie aspekte en operasionele kenmerke van die GSPMG geverifieer met behulp van praktiese toetse in die laboratorium en vir die SS-PMG geïntegreer met ’n bestaande 15 kW wind turbine stelsel in die veld.

This thesis describes the neutron scattering measurements of magnetic excitations in spin-chains and ladders. The first part discusses an experimental investigation of the copper oxide family Sr₁₄Cu₂₄O₄₁ composed of edge-sharing chains and spin-ladders. The study of La₄Sr₁₀Cu₂₄O₄₁ comprises a slightly hole-doped chain and an undoped ladder structure where the chain can be modeled by a ferromagnetic nearest and an antiferromagnetic next-nearest neighbor coupling. The hole effects are apparent in gaps in the dispersion relation and can be described by a charge-density wave agreeing with the commensuration of the dispersion. Investigating the undoped ladder establishes the exchange constants including a cyclic exchange manifested by the two-magnon continuum and the suppression of the S = 1 bound mode. An orbital consideration provides an explanation for the exchanges including the different sizes of rung and leg coupling. The excitation spectrum of the doped ladder in Ca₂.₅Sr₁₁.₅Cu₂₄O₄₁ can be described by a direct comparison with the undoped ladder and the differences consisting of a higher energy mode and subgap scattering can be successfully modeled by the charge spectrum of the ladder calculated from the free electron model. The second part of the thesis investigates the alternating chain material Cu(NO₃)₂ · 2.5D2O and establishes the gapped one-magnon dispersion, the two-magnon continuum and for the first time the S =1 bound mode. Applying magnetic field drives the system through two critical field transitions, condensation of magnons into the ground state and saturation. The modes beyond saturation can be modeled by spin wave theory and the excitations at the first critical field follow Luttinger Liquid behavior. Additionally investigated are the temperature effects with the excitations being of a different nature but containing the signature of a strong correlated system. For an outlook the measurements including temperature and field are provided with further theoretical descriptions necessary.

In this thesis, two selected topics in magnetism are studied using theoretical modelling and computational methods. The first of these is the magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy (MAE) of transition metal based magnets. In particular, ways of finding 3d transition metal based materials with large MAE are considered. This is motivated by the need for new permanent magnet materials, not containing rare-earth elements, but is also of interest for other technological applications, where the MAE is a key quantity. The mechanisms of the MAE in the relevant materials are reviewed and approaches to increasing this quantity are discussed. Computational methods, largely based on density functional theory (DFT), are applied to guide the search for relevant materials. The computational work suggests that the MAE of Fe1-xCox alloys can be significantly enhanced by introducing a tetragonality with interstitial B or C impurities. This is also experimentally corroborated. Alloying is considered as a method of tuning the electronic structure around the Fermi energy and thus also the MAE, for example in the tetragonal compound (Fe1-xCox)2B. Additionally, it is shown that small amounts (2.5-5 at.%) of various 5d dopants on the Fe/Co-site can enhance the MAE of this material with as much as 70%. The magnetic properties of several technologically interesting, chemically ordered, L10 structured binary compounds, tetragonal Fe5Si1-xPxB2 and Hexagonal Laves phase Fe2Ta1-xWx are also investigated. The second topic studied is that of magnetic effects on the elastic scattering of fast electrons, in the context of transmission electron microscopy (TEM). A multislice solution is implemented for a paraxial version of the Pauli equation. Simulations require the magnetic fields in the sample as input. A realistic description of magnetism in a solid, for this purpose, is derived in a scheme starting from a DFT calculation of the spin density or density matrix. Calculations are performed for electron vortex beams passing through magnetic solids and a magnetic signal, defined as a difference in intensity for opposite orbital angular momentum beams, integrated over a disk in the diffraction plane, is observed. For nanometer sized electron vortex beams carrying orbital angular momentum of a few tens of ħ, a relative magnetic signal of order 10-3 is found. This is considered realistic to be observed in experiments. In addition to electron vortex beams, spin polarised and phase aberrated electron beams are considered and also for these a magnetic signal, albeit weaker than that of the vortex beams, can be obtained. / <p>Felaktigt ISBN i den tryckta versionen: 9789155497149</p><p></p>

Many physical properties, for example structural or magnetic, of a material are directly dependent on elemental composition. Tailoring of properties through highly accurate composition control is possible in thin films. This work exemplifies such tailoring. A short review is given of the current status for research in the area of permanent magnets, focusing on rare earth element free alternatives, where FeNi in the L10 phase is a possible candidate. Epitaxial FeNi L10 thin films were successfully synthesized by magnetron sputtering deposition of monoatomic layers of Fe and Ni on HF-etched Si(001) substrates with Cu or Cu100-xNix/Cu buffers. The in-plane lattice parameter aCuNi of the Cu100-xNix buffer layer was tuned by the Ni content. Through matching of aFeNi to aCuNi, the strain state (c/a)FeNi was controlled, where c is the out-of-plane lattice parameter. The 001 reflection indicative of chemical order, as measured by resonant x-ray diffraction, was in most cases split in two peaks due to a composition modulation of Fe and Ni. This chemical disorder contributed to that the uniaxial magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy, KU≈0.35 MJ/m3, was smaller than predicted. In later experiments the composition modulation could partly be compensated for. Remaining discrepancies with respect to predicted KU values were attributed to additional disorder induced by surface roughness of the buffer layer. The interface sharpness between Fe and Ni was explored by producing epitaxial symmetric multilayers with individual layer thicknesses n = 4-48 monolayers (ML). For n ≤ 8 ML the films had pure fcc structure, with antiferromagnetic Fe layers. For n ≥ 8 ML the Fe layers relaxed to bcc structure. A combinatorial sputter chamber, which has the capability to deposit samples with composition and thickness gradients, was assembled. A model for simulation of composition and thickness across large substrates, for the conditions in this chamber, is presented. The model is verified by comparison to experimental data. Some challenges inherent in combinatorial sputtering are discussed, and two experimental studies employing the technique are presented as examples. These investigated magnetic and structural properties of Tb-Co films, with 7-95 at.% Tb, and of amorphous and crystalline ternary gradient Co-Fe-Zr films, respectively.

The transport critical current density (J(_c)) of a 37 filament Bi-2223/Ag tape has been measured as a function of field and temperature from 4.2 K up to 90 K. Data have been obtained over a large current range from 10 mA up to 100 A and in fields up to 23 T with the tape in 3 orientations with respect to field. These comprehensive data have been used to test the predictions of the flux creep and weak link models used to explain J(_c) in Bi-2223 tapes. The J(_c)(B,T) dependence of optimised Bi-2223 tapes has been calculated using a curved film model. The model assumes perfect grain connectivity and that the local superconducting properties are equivalent to those in the best reported thin films. A comparison between the calculations and measured J(_c)(B,T) dependencies suggest that in high fields at 20 K, J(_c) in presently available industrially processed tapes is only a factor of 8 below the performance of ideal fully optimised tapes. Transport measurements have been made on Bi-2223 single filaments extracted from an alloy sheathed multifilamentary tape in liquid nitrogen at 77 K in fields up to 300 mT with the field aligned parallel and perpendicular to the a-b planes. Further Jc(B,T) data have been taken in a variable temperature insert at temperatures between 60 to 90 K in fields up to 15 T. In a study of the electric field-current density {E-J) characteristics of the c-axis orientated data at 77 K, negative curvature is observed in traces below 280 mT. However, the 280 mT trace exhibits both positive and negative curvature in different current regimes in contrast to the predictions of standard theory. A laboratory scale Bi-2223 superconducting magnet producing a maximum field of 1.29 T at 4.2 K has been designed and fabricated. The magnet comprises 6 resin impregnated double wound pancakes with a 40 mm bore fabricated via the react and wind route. Critical current density measurements have been made as a function of magnetic field, angle and strain at 4.2 K and 77 K on short samples of the constituent tape. The E-J characteristics of all component coils have been measured and a comparison with short sample data shows that minimal additional damage occurred beyond that produced by the bending strain on the tape and the long length variation in J(_c). Sufficient detail is provided for the non-specialist to assess the potential use of brittle superconducting tapes for magnet technology and construct a laboratory scale magnet.

Dans le contexte des améliorations du LHC, des efforts importants sont fournis pour concevoir des aimants d'accélérateurs utilisant l'alliage supraconducteur Nb3Sn, qui permet d'atteindre des champs magnétiques plus élevés (>12T). Le but de cette thèse est de proposer de nouvelles méthodes de calcul et de fabrication de dipôles à haut champ en Nb3Sn. Une isolation céramique, mise au point précédemment au CEA Saclay, a été testée pour la première fois sur des câbles, dans les conditions d’utilisation d’un aimant d’accélérateur. Des mesures de courant critique sous champ magnétique et contrainte mécanique ont notamment été réalisées. Ces campagnes d’essais ont révélé que l’isolation céramique actuelle est trop fragile mécaniquement et que les propriétés de courant critique sont dégradées. Une étude a ensuite été menée, afin d’améliorer la tenue mécanique de l’isolation et de mieux répartir les contraintes à l’intérieur du câble. Des méthodes de conception magnétique ont par ailleurs été proposées afin d’optimiser la forme des bobinages, tout en respectant des contraintes d’homogénéité de champ, de marges de fonctionnement, de minimisation des efforts… Pour cela plusieurs codes d’optimisation ont été élaborés. Ils se basent sur des méthodes nouvelles utilisant des formules analytiques. Un code 2D a d’abord été élaboré pour des conceptions en blocs rectangulaires. Ensuite, deux codes 3D ont été conçus pour l’optimisation des têtes de dipôles. Le premier consiste à modéliser le bobinage à l’aide de blocs élémentaires, et le deuxième se base sur une modélisation des câbles supraconducteurs par des rubans. Ces codes d’optimisation ont permis de proposer des configurations magnétiques pour des aimants à haut champ. / In the framework of LHC upgrades, significant efforts are provided to design accelerator magnets using the superconducting alloy Nb3Sn, which allows to reach higher magnetic fields (>12T). The aim of this thesis is to propose new computation and manufacturing methods for high field Nb3Sn dipoles. A ceramic insulation, previously designed at CEA Saclay, has been tested for the first time on cables, in an accelerator magnet environment. Critical current measures, under magnetic field and mechanical stress, have been carried out in particular. With this test campaign, the current ceramic insulation has been shown to be too weak mechanically and the critical current properties are degraded. Then a study has been conducted, with the objective to improve the mechanical strength of the insulation and better distribute the stress inside the cable. Methods of magnetic design have also been proposed, in order to optimize the coils shape, while fulfilling constraints of field homogeneity, operational margins, forces minimization… Consequently, several optimization codes have been set up. They are based on new methods using analytical formulas. A 2D code has first been written for block designs. Then two 3D codes have been realized for the optimization of dipole ends. The former consists in modeling the coil with elementary blocs and the latter is based on a modeling of the superconducting cables with ribbons. These optimization codes allowed to propose magnetic designs for high field accelerator magnets.

Pós magnéticos foram produzidos utilizando o processo de hidrogenação, desproporção, dessorção e recombinação (HDDR). A primeira parte deste trabalho envolveu o estudo do efeito da adição de Co na liga Pr14FebalCoxB6Nb0.1 (x= 0, 4, 8, 10, 12, 16) variando a de temperatura de dessorção/ recombinação de 800° a 900°C, com o objetivo de otimização do tratamento HDDR. A liga Pr14Fe80B6 foi utilizada como padrão. As ligas foram tratadas termicamente a 1100°C por 20 horas para eliminação do Fe- exixtente na liga em estado bruto de fusão. A temperatura de dessorção/ recombinação afetou a microestrutura e as propriedades magnéticas dos ímãs moldados com polímeros. A liga com baixa adição de cobalto (4 at.%) exigiu a temperatura de reação mais alta (880°C) entre os demais ímãs. As temperaturas ótimas para as ligas com 8 at.% Co e 10 at.% Co foram 840°C e 820°C, respectivamente. Ligas com altas concentrações de cobalto (12 at.% and 16 at.%) foram processadas a 840°C. A temperatura de dessorção/ recombinação que apresentou alta anisotropia nas ligas Pr14Fe80B6 e Pr14Fe79,9B6Nb0,1 foi de 820°C. O ímã que apresentou melhor remanência (862mT) foi processado com a liga Pr14Fe67,9Co12B6Nb0,1. Cada liga apresentou uma temperatura de reação otimizada e exibiu uma microestrutura particular, de acordo com a composição. A segunda parte deste trabalho envolveu a caracterização, dos pós HDDR de Pr14Fe80B6, que foram analisadas por difração de raios X com fonte síncrotron para a identificação e quantificação de fases cristalinas, e ainda para a determinação do tamanho médio de cristalitos da fase principal. A microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) foi utilizada para revelar a morfologia dos pós HDDR. / Fine magnetic powders were produced using the hydrogenation disproportionation desorption and recombination (HDDR) process. The first stage in this work involved an investigation of the effect of the Co content and range of desorption/ recombination temperatures between 800 and 900°C with the purpose of optimizing the HDDR treatment for Pr14Fe80B6 and Pr14FebalCoxB6Nb0,1 (x= 0, 4, 8, 10, 12, 16) alloys. The cast alloys were annealed at 1100°C for 20 hours for homogenization. The processing temperature (desorption/ recombination) affected the microstructure and magnetic properties of the bonded magnets. The alloy with low cobalt content (4 at.%) required the highest reaction temperature (880°C) to yield anisotropic bonded magnets. The optimum temperature for alloys with 8 at.% Co and 10 at.% Co were 840°C and 820°C, respectively. Alloys with high cobalt content (12 at.% and 16 at.%) were processed at 840°C. The optimum desorption temperature for achieving high anisotropy for Pr14Fe80B6 and Pr14Fe79,9B6Nb0,1 was 820°C. The best remanence (862mT) was achieved with the Pr14Fe67,9B6Co12Nb0,1 magnet, processed at 840°C. Each alloy required an optimum reaction temperature and exhibited a particular microstructure according to the composition. The second stage of the work involved the characterization, for each temperature, of the Pr14Fe80B6 HDDR powder processed using X-ray diffraction analysis. The samples of the HDDR material were studied by synchrotron radiation powder diffraction using the Rietveld method for cell refinement, phase quantification and crystallite sizes determination. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has also been employed to reveal the morphology of the HDDR powder.

Esse trabalho teve como objetivo verificar o efeito da adição do ácido oléico na moagem de alta velocidade/energia na obtenção de pós magnéticos em escala nanométricas da liga Pr12Fe65,9Co16B6Nb0,1. A primeira etapa deste trabalho, envolveu a obtenção de pós magnéticos por meio do processo de hidrogenação, desproporção, dessorção e recombinação (HDDR), utilizando a pressão de H2 de 930 mbar (hidrogenação e desproporção) e temperatura de dessorção e recombinação de 840 ºC. Inicialmente, os pós HDDR foram submetidos à moagem de alta velocidade/energia a 900 rpm, com variação do volume do meio de moagem (ciclohexano) sem adição de ácido oleico. Em seguida, os pós HDDR foram submetidos à moagem com adição de ácido oleico, variando o tempo de moagem. Após a moagem, foi realizado tratamento térmico dos pós a 700 ºC ou 800 ºC durante 30 min., com a finalidade de cristalização do pó. Foi verificado que, a utilização de 6,6 ml de ciclohexano como meio de moagem e com adição de ácido oleico há uma melhora na eficiência da moagem dos pós. Para adições de surfactante, de 0,02 a 0,05 ml e tempos de moagem até 360 minutos, não ocorre a aglomeração dos pós magnéticos no pote de moagem, obtendo acima de 90% de eficiência na moagem. A segunda etapa deste trabalho envolveu a caracterização dos pós magnéticos: utilizando magnetômetro de amostra vibrante, microscopia eletrônica de Varredura, microscopia eletrônica de transmissão e difração de raios-X. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que a adição de ácido oléico na moagem de alta velocidade/energia proporciona uma melhora nas propriedades magnéticas. Com a variação do tempo de moagem a fase Fe-&alpha; presente no pó HDDR apresenta diminuição no tamanho do cristalito (de 35 para ~ 10 nm) enquanto que, na fase Pr2Fe14B verifica-se menor grau de cristalinidade. / This work verified the effect caused by adding the surfactant in the high speed/energy milling in order to obtain Pr12Fe65.9Co16B6Nb0.1 magnetic nanopowders. The first part of this work involved the magnetic powder obtainment through the process of hydrogenation, disproportionation, desorption and recombination (HDDR). The pressure of H2 during the hydrogenation and disproportion steps was 930 mbar and the temperature of desorption and recombination was 840 ºC. Initially, the HDDR powders were subjected a highspeed milling process at 900 rpm, with quantity variations of the milling medium (cyclohexane) and without the addition of oleic acid. Then, the HDDR powders were subjected to the milling process with the addition of oleic acid and with milling time variations. After the milling process, heat treatments of the powder were carried out at 700 °C or 800 °C for 30 minutes in order to obtain the crystallization of the powder. By performing the procedures, it was verified that the milling efficiency improved with the addition of 6.6 ml of cyclohexane as the milling medium and with the addition of oleic acid. It was determined that for the surfactant additions of 0.02 ml to 0.05 ml, with a milling time of up to 360 minutes, powder agglomeration does not occur in the milling pot and the milling efficiency is higher than 90%. The second stage of this work involved the magnetic powders characterization obtained by using vibrating sample magnetometer, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Through the characterizations it was found that the powders magnetic properties improved when the addition of oleic acid in a high-speed /energy milling occurred. It was also verified that the &alpha;-Fe phase, present in the powder, shows a crystallite size decrease (from 35 nm to ~ 10 nm) when the time milling variation occurred; meanwhile, the crystallinity degree was lower in the Pr2Fe14B phase when the time milling variations was carried out.

Este trabalho propõe uma investigação sobre a influência da alocação da área de mancal em compressores herméticos para a refrigeração, considerando um motor Síncrono de Ímãs Permanentes com Partida Direta na Rede (LSPMSM) monofásico, e utilizando cálculos analíticos convencionais e o Método de Elementos Finitos (MEF). O recente aumento da preocupação com a eficiência energética tem levado muitos países a implantarem legislações que impõem necessidades de aumento de eficiência de motores elétricos. Neste contexto, o motor LSPMSM se apresenta como alternativa aos motores de indução convencionais visando à diminuição do consumo de energia elétrica, por exemplo, em refrigeradores. No entanto, a exigência de alocação de uma grande área para o mancal e por consequência a retirada de materiais ferromagnéticos do rotor pode diminuir o desempenho do motor LSPMSM inviabilizando assim sua aplicação. Para a realização deste estudo, foi adotada uma metodologia de projeto disponível na literatura para estabelecer as etapas do projeto a ser realizado. Tal referência de projeto, embora elaborada para ser utilizada em um motor LSPMSM trifásico, foi utilizada em um projeto de motor monofásico. Os resultados do ensaio foram comparados com os dados obtidos via simulações computacionais de tal forma a validar o método proposto e também avaliar o impacto da retirada de material do rotor no desempenho final do motor. Os resultados práticos ficaram próximos aos resultados obtidos em simulação validando a utilização da metodologia também em motores monofásicos. Desta forma foi possível visualizar o efeito da área de mancal no rotor que devido ao aumento da relutância do circuito magnético alterou os resultados do valor da tensão induzida dos ímãs. / This work proposes a study about the influence of the bearing area allocation in hermetic compressors for refrigeration, considering a single phase Line Start Permanent Magnets Synchronous Motor, and employing conventional analytical calculations and the Finite Element Method (MEF). Recent increase in concern about energy efficiency has led many countries to roll out laws that impose requirements to raise the electric motor efficiency. In this context the LSPMSM motor is an alternative over conventional induction motors for the purpose of seeking power consumption reduction. However, the requirement to allocate a large area for the bearing and thus removal of ferromagnetic materials of the rotor can reduce LSPMSM motor performance what may impede its implementation. For the accomplishment of this study it was adopted a methodology of design available in the literature to set up the steps to be followed. Such design reference was at first described to be applied in three phase LSPMSM, however in this work it was applied in a single phase motor. Tests results were compared with data obtained via computer simulations in a way to validate the proposed method and to assess the impact of material removal from de rotor on the motor performance. The obtained bench test results were close to those simulated ones validating the methodology to be used in single phase motors too. Therefore, it was feasible to notice the influence of the counterbore area in the rotor, which, due to the increased value of the circuit reluctance, changed induced voltage values related to the magnets.