Este estudo teve como objetivos (a) identificar mecanismos pelos quais rearranjos cromossômicos citogeneticamente equilibrados possam estar associados de maneira causal a determinados quadros clínicos e (b) contribuir para a compreensão dos mecanismos de formação desses rearranjos. Para isso, foram estudados 45 rearranjos cromossômicos citogeneticamente equilibrados (29 translocações, 10 inversões e seis rearranjos complexos), detectados em pacientes que apresentavam malformações congênitas, comprometimento do desenvolvimento neuropsicomotor ou déficit intelectual. Foram 31 rearranjos cromossômicos esporádicos, três familiais que segregavam com o quadro clínico e mais 11 rearranjos cromossômicos herdados de genitores fenotipicamente normais. Inicialmente os pontos de quebra desses rearranjos foram mapeados por hibridação in situ fluorescente (FISH). A busca por microdeleções e duplicações genômicas foi realizada por a-CGH. A investigação dos pontos de quebra prosseguiu com a aplicação da técnica de Mate-Pair Sequencing (MPS), que permite localizar as quebras em segmentos de 100 pb - 1 kb, na maioria dos casos. Para obter os segmentos de junção das quebras no nível de pares de bases, os segmentos delimitados por MPS foram sequenciados pelo método de Sanger. A análise por aCGH revelou microdeleções ou microduplicações localizadas nos cromossomos rearranjados, em 12 dos 45 pacientes investigados (27%). A análise de 27 rearranjos por MPS permitiu a caracterização dos pontos de junção das quebras. MPS expandiu o número de pontos de quebra, detectados por análise do cariótipo ou aCGH, de 114 para 156 (em resolução < 2kb, na maioria dos casos). O número de pontos de quebra/rearranjo variou de 2 a 20. Os 156 pontos de quebra resultaram em 86 variantes estruturais equilibradas e outras 32 variantes não equilibradas. Perdas e ganhos de segmentos submiscroscópicos nos cromossomos rearranjados constituíram a principal causa ou, provavelmente, contribuíram para o quadro clínico de 12 dos 45 pacientes. Em cinco desses 12 rearranjos foram detectadas por MPS a interrupção de genes já relacionados à doença, ou provável alteração de sua região reguladora, contribundo para o quadro clínico. Em quatro dos 33 rearranjos não associados a perdas ou ganhos de segmentos, a análise por MPS revelou a interrupção de genes que já foram anteriormente relacionados a doenças, explicando-se, assim, as características clínicas dos portadores; outro rearranjo pode ter levando alteração da expressão gênica de gene sensível a dosagem e ao quadro clínico. Um rearranjo cromossômico familial, identificado na análise após bandamento G como uma translocação equilibrada, t(2;22)(p14;q12), segregava com quadro de atraso do desenvolvimento neuropsicomotor e dificuldade de aprendizado associados a dismorfismos. A combinação das análises por FISH, aCGH e MPS revelou que se tratava, na verdade, de rearranjo complexo entre os cromossomos 2, 5 e 22, incluindo 10 quebras. A segregação de diferentes desequilíbrios submicroscópicos em indivíduos afetados e clinicamente normais permitiu a compreensão da variabilidade clínica observada na família. Rearranjos equilibrados detectados em indivíduos afetados, mas herdados de genitores clinicamente normais, são, em geral, considerados como não tendo relação com o quadro clínico, apesar da possibilidade de desequilíbrios cromossômicos gerados por permuta desigual na meiose do genitor portador do rearranjo. Neste trabalho, a investigação de 11 desses rearranjos por aCGH não revelou perdas ou ganhos de segmentos nos cromossomos rearranjados. No entanto, a análise por aCGH da portadora de um desses rearranjos - inv(12)mat - revelou deleção de 8,7 Mb no cromossomo 8, como causa de seu fenótipo clínico. Essa deleção estava relacionada com outro rearranjo equilibrado também presente em sua mãe, independente da inversão. Para compreender os mecanismos de formação de rearranjos citogeneticamente equilibrados, investigamos os segmentos de junção no nível de pares de base. A análise por MPS que levou, na maioria dos casos, ao mapeamento dos pontos de quebras em segmentos <1kb permitiu o sequenciamento pelo método de Sanger de 51 segmentos de junções de 17 rearranjos. A ocorrência de blunt fusions ou inserções e deleções <10 pb, e a ausência de homologia ou a presença de micro homologia de 2 pb a 4 pb de extensão indicaram o mecanismo de junção de extremidades não homólogas (non-homologous end joinging; NHEJ), na maioria das 51 junções caracterizadas. As características de três dos quatro rearranjos mais complexos, com 17-20 quebras, indicaram sua formação pelo mecanismo de chromothripsis. Este estudo mostra a importância da análise genômica de variações de número de cópias por microarray, juntamente com o mapeamento dos pontos de quebra por MPS, para determinar a estrutura de rearranjos cromossômicos citogeneticamente equilibrados e seu impacto clínico. O mapeamento dos segmentos de junção por MPS, permitindo o sequenciamento pelo método de Sanger, foi essencial para a compreensão de mecanismos de formação desses rearranjos / This study aimed at (a) identifying causative mechanisms of clinical features in carriers of karyotypically balanced chromosomal rearrangements (BCRs), and (b) disclosing the mechanisms of formation of these chromosomal rearrangements. Forty-five BCRs - 29 translocations, 10 inversions and six complex rearrangements, detected in patients with intellectual disability, developmental delay and/or congenital malformations were investigated. Thirty-one rearrangements were de novo, three were familial and segregated with the clinical phenotype, and 11 BCRs were inherited from phenotypically normal parents. Initially, the breakpoints of the rearrangements were mapped by using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and the presence of cryptic genomic imbalances was investigated by array comparative genomic hybridization (a-CGH). Breakpoint-containing segments were narrowed down to approximately 100 pb - 1 kb, by using NGS-based mate-pair-sequencing (MPS). In order to investigate breakpoint junctions at the nucleotide level, breakpoint segments delimited by MPS were Sanger sequenced. De novo microimbalances on the rearranged chromosomes were detected by aCGH in 12 out of the 45 patients investigated (27%). MPS of 27 BCRs expanded the number of breakpoints, previously detected by karyotyping and aCGH, from 114 to 156 (breakpoint resolution < 2 kb, in most cases). The number of breakpoints/BCR ranged from 2 to 20. The 156 breakpoints resulted in 86 balanced and 32 unbalanced sample-specific structural variations (SVs). In 12 out of the 45 patients investigated by aCGH, microimbalaces on the rearranged chromosomes were responsible or likely contributed to the clinical features observed in the carriers. In five of these 12 rearrangements, truncated known disease genes or their regulatory regions also contributed to the clinical phenotype. MPS analysis revealed four out of the 33 rearrangements not associated with microimbalaces, truncated known disease genes, thus explaining clinical features of carriers. Another balanced rearrangement might have truncated the regulatory region of a dosage sensitive gene, thus disturbing gene expression and leading to the clinical features of the carrier. A karyotypically balanced translocation t(2;22)(p13;q12.2) associated with variable learning disabilities and dysmorphisms, was detected in six individuals in a three-generation family. Combined a-CGH, FISH and MPS revealed a ten-break complex rearrangement, also involving chromosome 5. As the consequence of the segregation of the derivative chromosomes der(2), der(5) and der(22), different microimbalances were present in affected and clinically normal family members, thus contributing to the clinical variability. Although, historically, BCRs inherited from phenotypically normal parents have not been considered as causally associated with clinical features of carriers, cryptic microimbalances on the rearranged chromosome have been reported that explained the clinical features of the affected carriers. In 11 such inherited BCRs ascertained through affected individuals, which were investigated in this work by using aCGH, no microimbalances were detected on the chromosomes involved. However, aCGH analysis in an affected girl, who carried an inv(12)mat, detected a likely pathogenic 8.7 Mb deletion on chromosome 8. This deleted chromosome derived from another maternal balanced rearrangement, not related to the inversion. In order to investigate mechanisms of BCR formation, breakpoint junctions, mapped at intervals of approximately 1 kb by MPS, were narrowed down to the nucleotide level by Sanger sequencing. Fifty-one breakpoint junctions (BPJs) from 17 BCRs (nine translocations, three inversions and five complex rearrangements) were sequenced. The occurrence of blunt fusions or <10 bp deletions, insertions or duplications in the majority of the 51 BPJs, and the absence of homology or the presence of just 2 bp to 4 bp microhomology indicated non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). In three of the four most complex BCRs (17 to 20 breaks) indicated chromothripsis as the mechanism underlying their formation. This study illustrates the importance of combining copy number variation analysis by microarray and breakpoint mapping by MPS, to determine the structure of karyotypically balanced chromosomal rearrangements, and to unravel their clinical impact. Mapping the breakpoint-junctions by MPS, followed by Sanger sequencing, was fundamental to determine the mechanism of formation of these rearrangements

O complexo Mre11 (Mre11/Rad50/Nbs1) é uma componente chave da resposta celular ao dano ao DNA em humanos e recentes observações sugerem que estas proteínas são em parte responsáveis pela interface ente o ensoreamento do dano ao DNA, seu reparo e as funções das proteínas envolvidas nos pontos de checagem do ciclo celular. Em Aspergillus nidulans, a partir de um screening para o isolamento de letais sintéticos na ausência de dineína, o gene sldIRAD50 foi clonado como um desses letais sintéticos através da complementação do fenótipo de deficiência de conidiação do mutante. Foi identificada uma transversão G-C na posição 2509 (Ala-692-Pro) no mutante sldI1444 a qual está presente na região de dobradiça da proteína. Essa mutação causa sensibilidade a vários agentes mutagênicos. Uma linhagem mutante sldIRAD50::pyrG foi construída a qual apresentou também vários defeitos na reposta celular ao dano ao DNA incluindo sensibilidade a várias drogas mutagênicas, defeito no ponto de checagem de replicação do DNA e na viabilidade dos ascosporos. Além disso, o gene sldIRAD50 interage geneticamente com bimEAPC1 para o controle do spindle pole checkpoint durante a segregação cromossômica sugerindo um novo papel para o complexo Mre11. Em atuação paralela com o complexo Mre11, duas proteínas quinases ditas apicais, ATM e ATR coordenam a transdução do sinal do dano ao DNA para proteínas efetoras do reparo. A proteína ATM está mutada na síndrome de instabilidade cromossômica herdada Ataxia Telangiectasia. Para a caracterização do homologo de ATM em A. nidulans AtmA, uma linhagem mutante atmAATM foi isolada. Esse mutante apresentou falha na reposta ao dano ao DNA, como seus homólogos em vários outros organismos mostrando defeitos no ponto de checagem intrafase S e G2/M, além de sensibilidade a camptothecin e bleomicina. Ainda, o extrato protéico bruto desse mutante não foi capaz de fosforilar o homologo de NBS1 em A. nidulans, ScaA. Além das conhecidas funções de ATM na resposta ao dano ao DNA, foi verificado que o mutante atmAATM apresentou uma acelerada cinética de divisão nuclear e severos defeitos no estabelecimento e manutenção do eixo de crescimento polarizado, evidenciando uma função ainda não descrita para ATM no crescimento polar. Provavelmente, AtmA regula a função e/ou localização de proteínas chaves para a formação do eixo de polarização. Diante disso, para investigar as vias metabólicas que são controladas por esse gene, o perfil transcricional do mutante atmAATM, em comparação com a linhagem selvagem foi verificado em diferentes condições de crescimento. Os resultados indicaram um importante papel da via das pentoses fosfato na proliferação celular monitorada pela AtmA. Além disso, foram identificados vários genes com a expressão do mRNA diminuída envolvidos no crescimento polarizado, na síntese de ácido fosfatídico e de ergosterol e no tráfico intracelular, secreção e transporte vesicular. Buscando identificar genes que participam da resposta celular ao dano ao DNA causado pela droga anti topoisomerase I, camptothecin, foram utilizados filtros de macroarray de A. nidulans contendo 2787 genes deste organismo para monitorar a expressão gênica da linhagem selvagem e do mutante uvsBATR, num experimento de indução com CPT por 30, 60 e 120 minutos. Os resultados revelaram um total de 1512 e 1700 genes modulados na linhagem selvagem e uvsBATR respectivamente, em pelo menos um ponto experimental. Seis desses genes que apresentaram aumento da expressão de mRNA na linhagem selvagem e diminuição da linhagem uvsBATR foram caracterizados: fhdA (que codifica para uma proteína com domínio fork-head associated), tprA (uma proteína hipotética que apresenta o domínio tetratrico peptide repeat), mshA (um homólogo MutS6 envolvido em mismatch repair), phbA (um homólogo da prohibitina), uvsCRAD51 e cshA (homólogo da proteína CSB envolvida no reparo por excisão de nucleotídeos e ligada a Síndrome de Cockayne). A indução transcricional desses genes na presença de CPT requer a função de uvsBATR. Estes genes foram deletados e surpreendentemente apenas uvsCRAD51 apresentou sensibilidade a CPT, enquanto os outros mostraram sensibilidade a outros agentes que causam dano ao DNA e estresse oxidativo. Além disso, com exceção de uvsCRAD51, a deleção desses genes leva a supressão parcial da sensibilidade a menadiona e paraquat do mutante uvsBATR. Esses resultados indicaram um comportamento heterogêneo de sensibilidade durante o crescimento na presença de agentes que causam dano direto ou indireto ao DNA, evidenciando que o perfil transcricional não é determinante para predizer a função de um gene na proteção da célula a determinada droga que causa dano ao DNA. / The Mre11 protein complex (Mre11/Rad50/Nbs1) has emerged as a central component in the human cellular DNA damage response, and recent observations suggest that these proteins are at least partially responsible for the linking of DNA damage detection to DNA repair and cell cycle checkpoint functions. In Aspergillus nidulans, the sldI1444D mutant was isolated in a screen for dynein synthetic lethals. The sldIRAD50 gene was cloned by complementation of the sporulation deficiency phenotype of this mutant. A transversion G-C at the position 2509 (Ala-692-Proamino acid change) in the sldI1444D mutant causes sensitivity to several DNAdamaging agents. The mutation sldI1 occurs at the CXXC hinge domain of Rad50. An inactivation strain sldIRAD50::pyrG was constructed. Besides sensitivity to a number of DNA-damaging agents, this deletion strain was also impaired in the DNA replication checkpoint response and in ascospore viability. Also, sldIRAD50::pyrG geneticaly interacted with bimEAPC1, acting in the spindle pole checkpoint control during segregation, suggesting a new possible role of Mre11 complex. In parallel to the Mre11 complex, two apical quinases ATM and ATR respond to DNA damage and transduce the signal to effector proteins. In humans, mutations in ATM cause the devastating neurodegenerative disease Ataxia Telangiectasia. Here we characterized the homolog of ATM (AtmA) in the filamentous fungus A. nidulans. The deletion strain atmA presented defects in the DNA damage response as previously shown in other model organisms including intra S-phase and G2/M checkpoint defects, sensitivity to camptothecin and bleomycin. Also, the crude extract from the mutant strain did not phosphorylate the NBS1 homologue ScaA. In addition to its expected role in the DNA damage response, the atmA mutant showed increased nuclear division kinetics and severe defects in polarized hyphal growth, indicating a novel feature for the ATM gene. Probably, AtmA regulates the function and/or localization of landmark proteins required for the formation of a polarity axis. We extended these studies by investigating which pathways are controlled by AtmA during proliferation and polar growth by comparatively determining the transcriptional profile of A. nidulans wild type and atmA mutant strains in different growth conditions. Our results indicated an important role of the pentose phosphate pathway in the fungal proliferation during endogenous DNA damage and polar growth monitored by the AtmA kinase. Furthermore, we identified several genes that have decreased mRNA expression in the atmA mutant that are involved in the formation of polarized hyphae and control of polar growth; in the biosynthesis of phosphatidic acid and ergosterol; and intracellular trafficking, secretion, and vesicular transport. In order to identify genes that responded to the DNA damage mediated by the anti- toposomerase I drug, camptothecin, we used an A. nidulans macroarray carrying sequences of 2,787 genes from this fungus to monitor gene expression of both wild-type and uvsBATR in a time-point experiment where mycelium was exposed to 60, 90 and 120 minutes to the drug. The results revealed a total of 1,512 and 1,700 genes in the wild-type and uvsBATR deletion mutant strain that displayed statistically significant difference in at least one experimental time-point. We characterized six genes that have increased mRNA expression in the presence of CPT in the wild-type strain relative to the uvsBATR mutant strain: fhdA (encoding a fork head associated domain protein), tprA (encoding a hypothetical protein that contains a tetratrico peptide repeat), mshA (encoding a MutS homologue involved in mismatch repair), phbA (encoding a prohibitin homologue), uvsCRAD51 (the homologue of the RAD51 gene), and cshA (encoding a homologue of the excision repair protein ERCC-6 [Cockaynes syndrome protein]). The induced transcript levels of these genes in the presence of CPT required uvsBATR. These genes were deleted, and surprisingly, only the uvsCRAD51 mutant strain was sensitive to CPT; however, the others displayed sensitivity to a range of DNA-damaging and oxidative stress agents. Moreover, with the exception of UvsC, deletion of each of these genes partially suppressed the sensitivity of the uvsB strain to menadione and paraquat. These results indicated a very complex and heterogeneous sensitivity behavior during growth in the presence of agents that directly or indirectly cause DNA damage and the transcriptional response to DNAdamaging agents does not necessarily identify the genes that protect against these agents.

L'infertilité affecte environ 15% des couples et l'étiologie est masculine dans la moitié des cas.Cette thèse étudie trois facteurs de l'infertilité masculine et se divise en deux parties décrites ci-dessous. Dans la première partie,l'équipement chromosomique et la fragmentation de I'ADN spermatique dans les gamètes d'hommes infertiles ont été étudiés par la technique FISH et TUNEL. Chez 4 patients présentant une mosaïque gonosomique, un taux élevé de gamètes aneuploïdes et de fragmentation de I'ADN spermatique a été observé. Concernant les l3 patients ayant une anomalie chromosomique de structure, l'équipement chromosomique et l'état de I'ADN spermatique ont été analysés dans chaque gamète. Les résultats montrent que les gamètes chromosomiquement déséquilibrés ont un ADN plus fragmenté que ceux dont l'équipement chromosomique est normal ou équilibré. Dans la deuxième partie, la mise au point d'une technique d'étude du transcriptome dans les spermatozoïdes a été faite sur des échantillons de sperme frais et congelé. La combinaison d'un gradient de densités discontinues et d'une lyse des cellules somatiques permet d'éliminer complètement des cellules somatiques en récupérant le maximum possible de spermatozoïdes dans le sperme. Le kit NucleoSpin RNA XS (Macherey Nagel) est plus adapté pour I'extraction d'ARN spermatiques que le kit d'extraction d'ARN de chez Qiagen. La pureté des ARN spermatiques est vérifiée par RT-PCR et le Bioanalyzer 2700. Ces deux méthodes donnent des résultats similaires et concordants. L'analyse de microarray montre que les spermatozoïdes frais ne partagent pas le même profil d'expression génétique que les spermatozoïdes congelés. / Infertility affects about 15% of couples with male factor found in half of the cases. This Ph.D thesisinvestigates three causes of male infertility including chromosomal abnormality, genetic disorderand factors related to alterations in sperm DNA quality. The thesis is organized into two parts.In the first part, the chromosomal equipment and sperm DNA fragmentation in gametes of infertilemen were assessed by FISH and TUNEL. On the one hand, a high rate of aneuploid gametes andsperm DNA fragmentation were observed in four patients with gonosomal mosaicism. On the otherhand, analysis of chromosomal equipment and sperm nuclear DNA in each gamete from 13 patientswith structural chromosome abnormalities showed that unbalanced gametes have more fragmentedDNA than normal or balanced ones.In the second part, a technique for analysing the transcriptome in spermatozoa was developed onfresh and frozen semen. In fact, the combination of a discontinuous density gradient and a somaticcell lysis solution makes it possible to completely eliminate somatic cells and to recover as manysperms in the semen as possible. The XS NucleoSpin RNA kit (Macherey Nagel) was found to bemore suitable for RNA extraction than the RNA extraction kit from Qiagen. The purity of sperm RNA was verified by both RT-PCR and the Bíoanalyzer 2100. These two methods have yieldedsimilar and consistent results. The microarray analysis showed that fresh sperms do not share thesame gene expression profile than frozen ones.

A própolis é uma mistura resinosa complexa de várias substâncias coletada de plantas pelas abelhas. Ela tem atraído atenção devido à variedade de suas propriedades biológicas e terapêuticas. Diversos estudos têm mostrado a conexão existente entre a morte celular tipo-apoptose em fungos e importantes processos biológicos como desenvolvimento, envelhecimento, resposta a estresse e patogênese. Neste contexto, este projeto avaliou a atividade antifúngica da própolis, com o objetivo de ampliar os conhecimentos acerca das vias metabólicas de morte celular em fungos, como S. cerevisiae e C. albicans, e também em relação à utilização da própolis como uma terapia antifúngica mais efetiva. Inicialmente, utilizou-se S. cerevisiae com o objetivo de compreender como a própolis afeta fungos ao nível celular. Foi observado que ela é capaz de induzir uma resposta de morte celular apoptótica. No entanto, a exposição aumentada à própolis promove um correspondente aumento na resposta tipo necrose. Verificou-se ainda que o citocromo c, mas não a endonuclease G Nuc1p, está envolvido na morte celular mediada por própolis em S. cerevisiae. Também foi observado que o gene da metacaspase YCA1 é importante para a morte celular induzida por esta substância natural. Para elucidar as funções dos genes que poderiam ser necessários para a sensibilidade à própolis em eucariotos, realizou-se um screening da coleção completa com cerca de 4800 cepas haplóides com genes únicos deletados de S. cerevisiae. Foram identificadas 138 cepas que apresentaram diferentes graus de sensibilidade à própolis quando comparadas com a cepa do tipo selvagem correspondente. Na análise deste screening por biologia de sistemas e também através do perfil transcripcional de S. cerevisiae exposto à própolis, foram observados genes envolvidos na cadeia de transporte de elétrons mitocondrial, da acidificação vacuolar, da regulação negativa da transcrição do promotor da RNA polimerase II, da regulação da macroautofagia associada com a proteína alvo para vacúolo e da resposta celular à privação de nutrientes. Os estudos de validação indicaram que a sensibilidade da própolis é dependente da função mitocondrial e que a acidificação vacuolar e autofagia são importantes para a morte causada por própolis em leveduras. Para o fungo patogênico C. albicans, foi observado que a própolis induz uma morte celular do tipo necrose; observou-se ainda que o gene IPF4847 (homólogo para o gene da metacaspase YCA1 de S. cerevisiae) é importante para a morte celular mediada por própolis. Além disso, com o objetivo de tentar esclarecer algumas funções de genes que poderiam estar envolvidos na sensibilidade à própolis de C. albicans, 800 mutantes deletados de C. albicans foram escaneados e destes, 51 apresentaram maior sensibilidade a própolis quando comparados com as cepas do tipo selvagem correspondente. Vários genes observados em nosso \"screening\" estão envolvidos na transição dimórfica em C. albicans. Desta forma, foi realizado um ensaio a fim de se verificar o papel da própolis na inibição da transição dimórfica e foi observado que este composto inibe não só a transição dimórfica como também o crescimento de todos os morfotipos (levedura, hifa, e pseudohifa) de C. albicans. Desta maneira, o uso da própolis para o tratamento clinico da candidíase pode ter grande aplicação, principalmente por afetar um mecanismo importante para a patogenicidade deste fungo / Propolis is a complex mixture of several resinous substances which are collected thorn plants by bees. Propolis has attracted the attention of researchers because of its variety of biological and therapeutic properties. Studies have shown the connection between Propolis and apoptosis-like cell death in fungi and other important biological processes such as development, aging, stress response and pathogenesis. In this context, this project evaluated the antifungal activity of Propolis, With the aim of expanding the knowledge about the metabolic pathways of cell death in fungi such as S. cerevisiae and C. albicans, and also in relation to the use of propolis as an effective antifungal therapy. For this, initially we utilised S. cerevisiae as a model organism to study the genetics, cell biology and genomics that determine how propolis affects fungi at the cellular level. Propolis is able to induce an apoptosis cell death response. However, increased exposure to propolis provides a corresponding increase in the necrosis response. We showed that cytochrome c, but not endonuclease G (Nuc1p), is involved in propolis-mediated cell death in S. cerevisiae. We also observed that the metacaspase YCA1 gene is important for propolis-mediated cell death. To elucidate the gene functions that may be required Or propolis sensitivity in eukaryotes, the full collection of approximately 4,800 haploid S. cerevisiae deletion strains was screened for propolis sensitivity. We were able to identify 138 deletion strains that have different degrees of propolis sensitivity compared to the corresponding wild-type strains. Systems biology revealed enrichment for genes involved in the mitochondrial electron transport chain, vacuolar acidification, negative regulation of transcription from RNA polymerase II promoter, regulation of macroautophagy associated with protein targeting to vacuoles, and cellular responses to starvation. Validation studies indicated that propolis sensitivity is dependent on mitochondrial function and. that vacuolar acidification and autophagy are important for S. cerevisiae cell death caused by propolis. For the pathogenic fungus C. albicans it was observed that propolis induces cell death like necrosis. It was also observed that the IPF4847 gene (homologous to the YCA1 metacaspase gene of S. cerevisiae) was also important for cell death mediated by propolis in C. albicans. Furthermore, aiming to clarify some of the functions of genes that could be involved in C. albicans sensitivity to propolis, 800 C. albicans deletion mutants were screened, and 51 showed greater sensitivity to propolis compared with the corresponding wild-type strains. Several genes found in our screening were involved in the dimorphic transition of C. albicans. Thus, an assay was performed in order to verify the role of propolis in the inhibition of the dimorphic switch. It was observed that propolis can inhibit the dimorphic transition and the growth of all its morphotypes (budding hyphal and pseudohyphal) in C. albicans. So, the use of propolis for clinical treatment of Candidiasis may have a wide application, principally by affecting an important mechanism for the pathogenicity of fungi

ABSTRACT The morphological premalignant changes in prostate epithelium such as high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN) precede invasive prostate cancer (PC) by several decades. The overall aim of this project was to identify patterns of gene expression in HGPIN and early PC which increase our understanding of the early biology of PC and identify genes and pathways that correlate with an aggressive phenotype. A comprehensive tissue cohort of premalignant prostate lesions was collected in a tissue microarray (TMA) platform that was utilised for high-throughput validation of target genes. Using this unique resource, the expression of the tumour suppressor gene PTEN was assessed using immunohistochemistry in an initial candidate gene approach based on mouse models implicating PTEN in carcinogenesis. No significant difference in expression of PTEN was detected in premalignant and benign epithelium. A transcript profiling approach was undertaken by integrating laser capture microdissection, linear RNA amplification and oligonucleotide microarrays to perform a screen of matched patient samples of normal, HGPIN and PC cells. The expression patterns of two genes encoding secreted proteins, neuropeptide Y (NPY) and macrophage inhibitory cytokine (MIC-1) were validated using immunohistochemistry on TMAs representing the progression model of early PC. Increased expression of these proteins in PC was confirmed to occur early in the disease process and altered expression of NPY and MIC-1 was associated with worse clinical outcome. Further analysis of global gene expression patterns using a structured network knowledge base identified a notable aberration in the expression of extracellular matrix and extracellular matrix associated proteins in HGPIN and provided novel evidence for the role of this class of molecules in the development of PC. In summary, contrary to current dogma based on work in animal models, altered PTEN expression is unlikely to represent an important event in the development of malignancy in the human prostate. In contrast, the expression patterns and prognostic value of NPY and MIC-1 in HGPIN support their further evaluation as biomarkers for the development and progression of PC. The aberrant expression of genes and networks of genes detected in HGPIN will assist in further identification of biological pathways which may be targeted in therapeutic strategies against the development and progression of PC.

Ph.D. / Medical Informatics and Clinical Epidemiology / Tools to automatically summarize gene information from the literature have the potential to help genomics researchers better interpret gene expression data and investigate biological pathways. Even though several useful human-curated databases of information about genes already exist, these have significant limitations. First, their construction requires intensive human labor. Second, curation of genes lags behind the rapid publication rate of new research and discoveries. Finally, most of the curated knowledge is limited to information on single genes. As such, most original and up-to-date knowledge on genes can only be found in the immense amount of unstructured, free text biomedical literature. Genomic researchers frequently encounter the task of finding information on sets of differentially expressed genes from the results of common highthroughput technologies like microarray experiments. However, finding information on a set of genes by manually searching and scanning the literature is a time-consuming and daunting task for scientists. For example, PubMed, the first choice of literature research for biologists, usually returns hundreds of references for a search on a single gene in reverse chronological order. Therefore, a tool to summarize the available textual information on genes could be a valuable tool for scientists. In this study, we adapted automatic summarization technologies to the biomedical domain to build a query-based, task-specific automatic summarizer of information on mouse genes studied in microarray experiments - mouse Gene Information Clustering and Summarization System (GICSS). GICSS first clusters a set of differentially expressed genes by Medical Subject Heading (MeSH), Gene Ontology (GO), and free text features into functionally similar groups;next it presents summaries for each gene as ranked sentences extracted from MEDLINE abstracts, with the ranking emphasizing the relation between genes, similarity to the function cluster it belongs to, and recency. GICSS is available as a web application with links to the PubMed (www.pubmed.gov) website for each extracted sentence. It integrates two related steps, functional gene clustering and gene information gathering, of the microarray data analysis process. The information from the clustering step was used to construct the context for summarization. The evaluation of the system was conducted with scientists who were analyzing their real microarray datasets. The evaluation results showed that GICSS can provide meaningful clusters for real users in the genomic research area. In addition, the results also indicated that presenting sentences in the abstract can provide more important information to the user than just showing the title in the default PubMed format. Both domain-specific and non-domain-specific terminologies contributed in the informative sentences selection. Summarization may serve as a useful tool to help scientists to access information at the time of microarray data analysis. Further research includes setting up the automatic update of MEDLINE records; extending and fine-tuning of the feature parameters for sentence scoring using the available evaluation data; and expanding GICSS to incorporate textual information from other species. Finally, dissemination and integration of GICSS into the current workflow of the microarray analysis process will help to make GICSS a truly useful tool for the targeted users, biomedical genomics researchers.

Einleitung<br /> Säugetiere haben zwei verschiedene Arten von Fettgewebe: das weiße Fettgewebe, welches vorwiegend zur Lipidspeicherung dient, und das braune Fettgewebe, welches sich durch seine Fähigkeit zur zitterfreien Thermogenese auszeichnet. Weiße und braune Adipozyten sind beide mesodermalen Ursprungs. Die Mechanismen, die zur Entwicklung von Vorläuferzellen in den weißen oder braunen Fettzellphenotyp führen, sind jedoch unbekannt. Durch verschiedene experimentelle Ansätze konnte gezeigt werden, daß diese Adipocyten vermutlich durch die Differenzierung zweier Typen unterschiedlicher Vorläuferzellen entstehen: weiße und braune Preadipozyten. Von dieser Hypothese ausgehend, war das Ziel dieser Studie, die Genexpression weißer und brauner Preadipozyten auf Unterschiede systematisch zu analysieren.<br /> <br /> Methoden<br /> Die zu vergleichenden Zellen wurden aus primären Zellkulturen weißer und brauner Preadipozyten des dsungarischen Zwerghamsters gewonnen. „Representational Difference Analysis“ wurde angewandt, um potentiell unterschiedlich exprimierte Gene zu isolieren. Die daraus resultierenden cDNA Fragmente von Kandidatengenen wurden mit Hilfe der Microarraytechnik untersucht. Die Expression dieser Gene wurde in braunen und weißen Fettzellen in verschiedenen Differenzierungsstadien und in braunem und weißem Fettgewebe verglichen.<br /> <br /> Ergebnisse<br /> 12 Gene, die in braunen und weißen Preadipozyten unterschiedlich exprimiert werden, konnten identifiziert werden. Drei Komplement Faktoren und eine Fettsäuren Desaturase werden in weißen Preadipozyten höher exprimiert; drei Struktur Gene (Fibronectin, Metargidin und a Actinin 4), drei Gene verbunden mit transkriptioneller Regulation (Necdin, Vigilin und das „small nuclear ribonucleoprotein polypeptide A“) sowie zwei Gene unbekannter Funktion werden in braunen Preadipozyten höher exprimiert. Mittels Clusteranalyse (oder Gruppenanalyse) wurden die gesamten Genexpressionsdaten charakterisiert. Dabei konnten die Gene in 4 typischen Expressionsmuster aufgeteilt werden: in weißen Preadipozyten höher exprimierte Gene, in braunen Preadipozyten höher exprimierte Gene, während der Differenzierung herunter regulierte Gene und während der Differenzierung hoch regulierte Gene.<br /> <br /> Schlußfolgerungen<br /> In dieser Studie konnte gezeigt werden, daß weiße und braune Preadipozyten aufgrund der Expression verschiedener Gene unterschieden werden können. Es wurden mehrere Kandidatengene zur Bestimmung weißer und brauner Preadipozyten identifiziert. Außerdem geht aus den Genexpressionsdaten hervor, daß funktionell unterschiedliche Gruppen von Genen eine wichtige Rolle bei der Differenzierung von weißen und braunen Preadipozyten spielen könnten, wie z.B. Gene des Komplementsystems und der extrazellulären Matrix. / Introduction<br /> Mammals have two types of adipose tissue: the lipid storing white adipose tissue and the brown adipose tissue characterised by its capacity for non-shivering thermogenesis. White and brown adipocytes have the same origin in mesodermal stem cells. Yet nothing is known so far about the commitment of precursor cells to the white and brown adipose lineage. Several experimental approaches indicate that they originate from the differentiation of two distinct types of precursor cells, white and brown preadipocytes. Based on this hypothesis, the aim of this study was to analyse the gene expression of white and brown preadipocytes in a systematic approach. <br /> <br /> Experimental approach<br /> The white and brown preadipocytes to compare were obtained from primary cell cultures of preadipocytes from the Djungarian dwarf hamster. Representational difference analysis was used to isolate genes potentially differentially expressed between the two cell types. The thus obtained cDNA libraries were spotted on microarrays for a large scale gene expression analysis in cultured preadipocytes and adipocytes and in tissue samples.<br /> <br /> Results<br /> 4 genes with higher expression in white preadipocytes (3 members of the complement system and a fatty acid desaturase) and 8 with higher expression in brown preadipocytes were identified. From the latter 3 coded for structural proteins (fibronectin, metargidin and a actinin 4), 3 for proteins involved in transcriptional regulation (necdin, vigilin and the small nuclear ribonucleoprotein polypeptide A) and 2 are of unknown function. Cluster analysis was applied to the gene expression data in order to characterise them and led to the identification of four major typical expression profiles: genes up-regulated during differentiation, genes down-regulated during differentiation, genes higher expressed in white preadipocytes and genes higher expressed in brown preadipocytes.<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> This study shows that white and brown preadipocytes can be distinguished by different expression levels of several genes. These results draw attention to interesting candidate genes for the determination of white and brown preadipocytes (necdin, vigilin and others) and furthermore indicate that potential importance of several functional groups in the differentiation of white and brown preadipocytes, mainly the complement system and extracellular matrix.

Vitamin E wird immer noch als das wichtigste lipophile Antioxidanz in biologischen Membranen betrachtet. In den letzten Jahren hat sich jedoch der Schwerpunkt der Vitamin E-Forschung hin zu den nicht-antioxidativen Funktionen verlagert. Besonderes Interesse gilt dabei dem α-Tocopherol, der häufigsten Vitamin E-Form im Gewebe von Säugetieren, und seiner Rolle bei der Regulation der Genexpression. Das Ziel dieser Dissertation war die Untersuchung der genregulatorischen Funktionen von α-Tocoperol und die Identifizierung α-Tocopherol-sensitiver Gene in vivo. Zu diesem Zweck wurden Mäuse mit verschiedenen Mengen α-Tocopherol gefüttert. Die Analyse der hepatischen Genexpression mit Hilfe von DNA-Microarrays identifizierte 387 α-Tocopherol-sensitive Gene. Funktionelle Clusteranalysen der differentiell exprimierten Gene zeigten einen Einfluss von α-Tocooherol auf zelluläre Transportprozesse. Besonders solche Gene, die an vesikulären Transportvorgängen beteiligt sind, wurden größtenteils durch α-Tocopherol hochreguliert. Für Syntaxin 1C, Vesicle-associated membrane protein 1, N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor and Syntaxin binding protein 1 konnte eine erhöhte Expression mittels real time PCR bestätigt werden. Ein funktioneller Einfluss von α-Tocopherol auf vesikuläre Transportprozesse konnte mit Hilfe des in vitro β-Hexosaminidase Assays in der sekretorischen Mastzelllinie RBL-2H3 gezeigt werden. Die Inkubation der Zellen mit α-Tocopherol resultierte in einer konzentrationsabhängigen Erhöhung der PMA/Ionomycin-stimulierten Sekretion der β-Hexosaminidase. Eine erhöhte Expression ausgewählter Gene, die an der Degranulation beteiligt sind, konnte nicht beobachtet werden. Damit schien ein direkter genregulatorischer Effekt von α-Tocopherol eher unwahrscheinlich. Da eine erhöhte Sekretion auch mit β-Tocopherol aber nicht mit Trolox, einem hydrophilen Vitamin E-Analogon, gefunden wurde, wurde vermutet, dass α-Tocopherol die Degranulation möglicherweise durch seine membranständige Lokalisation beeinflussen könnte. Die Inkubation der Zellen mit α-Tocopherol resultierte in einer veränderten Verteilung des Gangliosids GM1, einem Lipid raft Marker. Es wird angenommen, dass diese Membranmikrodomänen als Plattformen für Signaltransduktionsvorgänge fungieren. Ein möglicher Einfluss von Vitamin E auf die Rekrutierung/Translokation von Signalproteinen in Membranmikrodomänen könnte die beobachteten Effekte erklären. Eine Rolle von α-Tocopherol im vesikulären Transport könnte nicht nur seine eigene Absorption und seinen Transport beeinflussen, sondern auch eine Erklärung für die bei schwerer Vitamin E-Defizienz auftretenden neuronalen Dysfunktionen bieten. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde die α-Tocopheroltransferprotein (Ttpa) Knockout-Maus als genetisches Modell für Vitamin E-Defizienz verwendet, um den Effekt von Ttpa auf die Genexpression und die Gewebeverteilung von α-Tocopherol zu analysieren. Ttpa ist ein cytosolisches Protein, das für die selektive Retention von α-Tocopherol in der Leber verantwortlich ist. Die Ttpa-Defizienz resultierte in sehr geringen α-Tocopherol-Konzentrationen im Plasma und den extrahepatischen Geweben. Die Analyse der α-Tocopherol-Gehalte im Gehirn wies auf eine Rolle von Ttpa bei der α-Tocopherol-Aufnahme ins Gehirn hin. / Vitamin E is still considered the most important lipid-soluble antioxidant within biological membranes. However, in the last years the non-antioxidant functions of vitamin E have become the focus of vitamin E research. From the eight members of the vitamin E family, specific emphasis is given to α-tocopherol, the most abundant vitamin E form in mammalian tissues, and its role in the regulation of gene expression. The aim of this thesis was the analysis of the gene regulatory functions of α-tocopherol and the identification of α-tocopherol sensitive genes in vivo. For this purpose mice were fed diets differing in α-tocopherol content. The analysis of hepatic gene expression using DNA microarrays identified 387 α-tocopherol-sensitive genes. Functional cluster analyses of these differentially expressed genes demonstrated an influence of α-tocopherol on cellular transport processes. Especially the expression of genes involved in vesicular trafficking was largely upregulated by α-tocopherol. Upregulation of syntaxin 1C, vesicle-associated membrane protein 1, N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor and syntaxin binding protein 1 was verified by real time PCR. A role of α-tocopherol in exocytosis was shown by the in vitro β-hexosaminidase release assay in the secretory mast cell line RBL-2H3. Incubation with α-tocopherol resulted in a concentration dependent increase of PMA/ionomycin-stimulated secretion of β-hexosaminidase. Induction of selected genes involved in degranulation was not observed at any time point. Thus, a direct gene-regulatory effect of α-tocopherol seemed rather unlikely. Since increased secretion was also observed with ß-tocopherol but not with trolox, a water-soluble analog of vitamin E, it was hypothesized that α-tocopherol might affect degranulation through its localization at the plasma membrane. Incubation of cells with α-tocopherol changed the distribution of the gangliosid GM1, a Lipid raft marker. These membrane microdomains are assumed to function as signaling platforms. An possible influence of vitamin E on the recruitment/translocation of signaling proteins into membrane microdomains could explain the observed effects. A role of α-tocopherol in the vesicular transport might not only affect its own absorption and transport but also explain the neural dysfunctions observed in severe α-tocopherol deficiency. In the second part of this dissertation the α-tocopherol transfer protein (Ttpa) knockout-mouse as a model of genetic vitamin E deficiency was used to analyze the effect of Ttpa gene expression and tissue distribution of α-tocopherol. Ttpa is a cytosolic protein, which is responsible for the selective retention of α-tocopherol in the liver. Its deficiency resulted in very low α-tocopherol concentrations in plasma and extrahepatic tissues. Analysis of α-tocopherol contents in brain indicated a role for Ttpa in the uptake of α-tocopherol into the brain.

In the European Union an environmental risk assessment is required for the registration of new chemicals, biocides, pesticides and pharmaceuticals. In order to avoid the release of potential hazardous substances, various ecotoxicity tests are performed, including acute and chronic fish tests. As a consequence of the new program of the European Union “Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals” (REACH) the number of animal experiments for environmental risk assessment is expected to increase remarkably within the next years. On the other hand there is a strong societal demand for reducing the number of animal tests by using alternative in vitro models. According to EU directives, investigations using non-human vertebrate embryos are considered pain free in vitro methods and are therefore accepted as alternatives to animal experiments. For the acute fish test, the Danio rerio embryo test (DarT) has been established as a replacement method and included in national regulations at least for waste water (German Waste Water Dues Law). However, no alternatives for chronic fish tests are currently available. The overall goal of this thesis was to work towards such a replacement by extending DarT zu Gene-DarT. Toxicants will initially interact at the molecular level with consequences for physiology, fitness and survival. The analysis of gene expression patterns may unravel elements of these molecular events before any phenotypic changes are visible. The hypothesis of this thesis therefore was that chemical-sensitive genes in embryos exposed in a conventional DarT may indicate toxic impact of substances at sub-acute concentrations and thus enhance the sensitivity of the embryo toxicity test. Furthermore, unlike the conventional DarT-endpoints, gene expression analysis will provide insights into mechanistic processes underlying toxicity. The 3,4-dichloroaniline (3,4-DCA), which is used as a reference compound in the DarT, was selected as model chemical in this thesis. In a first step, differentially expressed genes in embryos exposed to 3,4-DCA were identified by microarray technology and RT-PCR techniques. Six dose-dependent significant differentially expressed genes were identified. These genes were involved in biotransformation pathways (cyp1a, ahr2), stress response (nrf2, maft, ho-1) and cell cycle control (fzr1). Differential expression upon 3,4-DCA exposure was detected below the LOEC (lowest observed effect concentration = 6.2 µM) of survival or developmental disorders of the embryo test (0.78 µM and above). For the validation of stage specific sensitivity, genes were also analysed in post-hatched stages. Extension of exposure to post-hatched stages resulted in a differential expression at lower concentrations as for the embryonic stages, indicating an improved sensitivity due to stage-specific sensitivity or exposure time. To confirm the adaptive function of the 3,4-DCA-sensitive genes, embryonic mRNA abundance was experimentally manipulated by knock down and overexpression. By injection of sense (mRNA) or antisense (siRNA) RNA in one-cell-stages of embryos, the transcript levels of genes were transiently enhanced or repressed in embryos exposed to 3,4-DCA. mRNA injection of the genes cyp1a, ho-1 and nrf2 reduced the number of embryos with 3,4-DCA-induced malformations. In contrast, siRNA injections for the same genes led to an increase in the severity and frequency of developmental disorders. The results clearly indicate the adaptive functions of the investigated genes or their corresponding proteins. This study demonstrates that the analysis of chemical-sensitive gene expression shows the potential to increase the sensitivity of conventional toxicity tests. The analysis of gene expression also provides additional mechanistic information for toxic action, e.g. in the presented study, the involvement of Ah-receptor regulated pathways as an adaptive response. Furthermore, the presented data indicate that functional manipulations, using mRNA and siRNA-injection, are suitable to evaluate the role of differentially expressed genes for toxicity.

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