Patients admitted in similar clinical condition after spontaneous SAH can develop very different clinical courses. This could depend on the severity of the initial global ischemic brain injury at ictus. In the present study, we explored relations between clinical and radiological parameters at admission that indicate a more severe initial impact, and the following days hormone levels and brain metabolism. Early global cerebral oedema (GCE) on computed tomography occurred in 57 % of SAH patients and was associated with a more severe clinical condition. The brain’s glucose metabolism, measured with intracerebral microdialysis (MD), changed the first days. MD-glucose was initially high and MD-pyruvate low. MD-glucose gradually decreased and MD-pyruvate and MD-lactate increased, suggesting a transition to a hyperglycolytic state. This was more pronounced in patients with GCE. Similar patterns were seen for interstitial non-transmitter amino acids. From initial low concentrations, they gradually increased in parallel with MD-pyruvate. The amino acid concentrations were higher for patients admitted in better clinical condition. Insulin lowered MD-glucose and MD-pyruvate even when plasma glucose values remained high. P-ACTH and S-cortisol were elevated early after SAH. GCE was associated with higher S-cortisol acutely. Urine cortisol excretion, indicating levels of free cortisol, were higher in patients in a better clinical condition. Suppressed P-ACTH occurred in periods of brain ischemia. We suggest that GCE on the first CT scan is a warning sign indicating increased vulnerability if the patient is exposed to compromised energy supply or increased energy demand. Reduction of blood glucose after SAH should be done with caution. The temporal change of the glucose metabolism and the amino acid concentrations probably reflect activated repair mechanisms. This should be considered in the intensive care treatment of SAH patients. Finally, our results support earlier observations that the response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system is important in critical care.

Calcitriol [1α,25(OH)2D3], the hormonally active form of vitamin D3 (D3) is produced in both renal and extrarenal tissues. Our findings demonstrate that physiological doses of UVB radiation at 300 nm induce the conversion of 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC) via preD3 and D3 into calcitriol in the pmol range in epidermal keratinocytes. The hydroxylation of photosynthesized D3 to calcitriol is strongly suppressed by ketoconazole, a known inhibitor of cytochrome P450 mixed function oxidases. The UVB-induced formation of calcitriol in human skin is demonstrable in vivo by the microdialysis technique. These results suggest that human skin is an autonomous source of hormonally active calcitriol. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

In critically ill patients, the pathophysiology of sepsis can affect the interactions between the antibiotic, the bacteria and the patient, leading to potential therapeutic failure and the development of antibiotic resistance. It is well acknowledged that research that optimises antibiotic exposure will assist improvement of outcomes in this patient group. Although beta-lactam antibiotics, such as piperacillin and meropenem, are commonly selected for empiric therapy of sepsis, dosing is unlikely to be optimal. In patients without renal dysfunction, data suggests that disease-induced alterations to pharmacokinetic parameters result in low trough concentrations for significant periods within a dosing interval. Administration of these time-dependent antibiotics by continuous infusion has been suggested to improve the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic profile. Knowledge of concentrations in the extracellular fluid of human tissue, which is the target site of most pathogens, is particularly instructive. Extracellular fluid concentrations can be determined using techniques such as microdialysis. Therefore, the principal aims of this Thesis were to determine the plasma and subcutaneous tissue pharmacokinetics of piperacillin and meropenem administered by bolus dosing and continuous infusion in critically ill patients with sepsis; and to use Monte Carlo simulations to compare the ability of different dosing strategies to achieve pharmacodynamic endpoints. This Thesis also sought to compare the clinical outcomes of bolus dosing and continuous infusion of a beta-lactam antibiotic, ceftriaxone, in a prospective randomised controlled trial and to perform a meta-analysis on clinical outcomes from other similar published studies. Finally, this Thesis aimed to systematically review the published literature to determine any correlation between antibiotic dosing and the development of antibiotic resistance. The results of the pharmacokinetic studies, using piperacillin and meropenem, indicate that beta-lactam distribution into subcutaneous tissue, in critically ill patients with sepsis, is less than that observed in previous studies in healthy volunteers yet superior to studies in patients with septic shock. This supports the notion that the peripheral concentration of drugs may be inversely related to the level of sickness severity. Administration by continuous infusion was found to maintain statistically significantly higher trough beta-lactam concentrations in both plasma and subcutaneous tissue. Further analysis of the plasma data using population pharmacokinetic modeling and Monte Carlo simulations described significant pharmacodynamic advantages for administering meropenem or piperacillin by continuous infusion to organisms with high minimum inhibitory concentrations. Given the documented pharmacodynamic advantages for administering beta-lactams by continuous infusion, a prospective randomized controlled clinical trial was conducted using the beta-lactam antibiotic ceftriaxone. In 57 critically ill patients, we found equivalence between continuous infusion and bolus dosing in the intention-to-treat analysis. However, our a priori analysis criteria, requiring patients receive at least 4-days antibiotic treatment, found significant clinical and bacteriological advantages for administration by continuous infusion. To further investigate any clinical differences between bolus dosing and continuous infusion of beta-lactam antibiotics, we performed a meta-analysis of all published studies. Our analysis of the 13 published prospective randomized controlled trials (846 hospitalised patients) showed equivalence of continuous infusion and bolus dosing. Possible confounders observed within, and between the studies, make interpretation of these results challenging. However, two large retrospective cohorts not included in the meta-analysis, found definitive clinical and bacteriological advantages suggesting further research may be appropriate. The possible relationship between antibiotic dosing, or exposures, on the development of resistance was investigated using a structured review of the published literature. Our analysis of relevant papers found a wealth of data describing increasing levels of resistance with sub-optimal antibiotic dosing, particularly for fluoroquinolone antibiotics, but also for other classes including beta-lactams. These results demonstrate the importance of optimizing antibiotic dosing to decrease the development of antibiotic susceptibility from sub-optimal dosing, particularly for critically ill patients who are likely to have low drug concentrations. The results of this Thesis, suggest that a large, prospective, multi-centre randomised controlled trial in critically ill patients with sepsis, is required to definitively determine the clinical utility of administration of beta-lactam antibiotics by continuous infusion.

Lic.-avh. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Karolinska institutet, 2007. / Härtill 3 uppsatser.

The use of nanocarriers is an intriguing approach in the development of efficacious treatment for brain disorders. The aim of the conducted research was to evaluate and quantify the impact of a liposomal nanocarrier formulation on the brain drug delivery. A novel approach for investigating the blood-brain barrier transport of liposomal DAMGO is presented, including in vivo microdialysis in rat, a high quality LC-MS/MS bioanalytical method and pharmacokinetic model analysis of the data. Factors limiting the brain distribution of the free peptide DAMGO were also investigated. Microdialysis, in combination with plasma sampling, made it possible to separate the released drug from the encapsulated and to quantify the active substance in both blood and brain interstitial fluid over time. The opioid peptide DAMGO entered the brain to a limited extent, with a clearance out of the brain 13 times higher than the clearance into the brain. The brain to blood ratio of unbound drug was not affected when the efflux transporter inhibitors cyclosporine A and elacridar were co-administered with DAMGO. Nor was the transport affected in the in vitro Caco-2 assay using the same inhibitors. This indicates that DAMGO is not transported by P-glycoprotein (Pgp) or breast cancer resistant protein (Bcrp). The blood-brain barrier transport was significantly increased for DAMGO when formulated in liposomes, resulting in 2-3 fold higher brain to blood ratio of unbound DAMGO. The increased brain delivery was seen both for glutathione tagged PEGylated liposomes, as well as for PEGyalted liposomes without specific brain targeting. The improvement in brain delivery was observed only when DAMGO was encapsulated into the liposomes, thus excluding any effect of the liposomes themselves on the integrity of the blood-brain barrier. Modeling of the data provided additional mechanistic understanding of the brain uptake, showing that endocytosis or transcytosis of intact liposomes across the endothelial cell membranes were unlikely. A model describing fusion of the liposomes with the luminal membrane described the experimental data the best. In conclusion, the studies presented in this thesis all contribute to an increased understanding of how to evaluate and improve brain delivery of CNS active drugs and contribute with important insights to the nanocarrier field.

O objetivo desta tese foi desenvolver um modelo farmacocinético-farmacodinâmico (PK-PD) aplicável a avaliação de esquemas posológicos de antifúngicos sistêmicos no tratamento de infecções cerebrais associadas ao Cryptococcus neorformans. Inicialmente um modelo de infecção cerebral em ratos Wistar machos imunocompetentes foi estabelecido. Os animais foram inoculados a partir da administração iv de 1.106 UFC/mL na veia lateral caudal, de uma cepa de Cryptococcus neoformans var neoformans (ATCC 28957). A presença da levedura em cérebro, pulmão, fígado, rins e coração foi avaliada após 7, 10 e 14 dias. Paralelamente foram investigados os parâmetros bioquímicos (contagem de leucócitos, TGO, TGP, uréia, creatinina, albumina e CK) e a permeabilidade vascular cerebral com azul de Evans. Após 10 dias de inoculação foi produzida uma infecção com características semelhantes a doença em humanos. C. neoformans esteve presente em todos os tecidos investigados pelas análises histológicas e microbiológicas e diferenças nos níveis de albumina, ureia, TGP e CK, alteração no número de leucócitos (monócitos e neutrófilos) e elevação da permeabilidade cerebral ao azul de Evans foram observadas nos animais infectados. Após estabelecida e caracterizada a infecção, foi avaliada a farmacocinética plasmática e tecidual cerebral através da técnica de microdiálise, do fluconazol (FLU) (20 mg/kg, i.v. bolus) e do voriconazol (VRC) (5 mg/kg, i.v. bolus) em ratos Wistar sadios (n = 13) e infectados (n = 13). De posse dos dados das concentrações plasmáticas e teciduais vs tempo dos grupos sadios e infectados construiu-se um modelo farmacocinético populacional (PopPK) para cada fármaco investigado. A penetração cerebral do VRC demonstrou-se elevada nos animais infectados (fTsadios = 0,85 vs fTinfectados = 1,86). O modelo PopPK de dois compartimentos e eliminação por Michaelis Menten descreveu o perfil de concentrações versus tempo de VRC em plasma e tecido, simultaneamente. A covariável infecção foi incluída em V2 e VM. Observou-se o grande potencial do VRC para tratar meningite associada a C. neoformans, pois os níveis alcançados em tecidos infectados foram superiores aos valores descritos para CIM de VRC contra C. neoformans (0,03 - 0,5 μg/mL). A farmacocinética do FLC foi descrita através de um modelo PopPK de dois compartimentos com eliminação linear incluindo dados de concentrações plasmáticas e livres cerebrais para ambos os grupos investigados. Nesse modelo a covariável infecção foi atribuída ao parâmetro k21 e covariável peso foi atribuída aos parâmetros V1 e V2. De posse desse modelo popPK, foram investigados os desfechos farmacodinâmicos considerando o nível de exposição cerebral nas doses de 125 e 250 mg/kg para ratos e 400-2000 mg para humanos observado em tecido sadio e infectado através da probabilidade de atingir o alvo terapêutico (PTA - fASC/CIM = 389) do FLC usando simulações de Monte Carlo. Essas simulações demonstraram um uso limitado de fluconazol em monoterapia para o tratamento de meningite por C. neoformans. Após a etapa farmacocinética procederam-se os estudos farmacodinâmicos através da metologia de curvas de morte em função do tempo do fluconazol e voriconazol frente a C. neoformans. Os dados da curva de morte foram modelados adequadamente com o modelo PK-PD de Emax modificado incluindo um termo de atraso de crescimento. A CIM foi determinada para ambos os fármacos por microdiluição e os valores foram de 0,03 μg/mL para voriconazol e 0,5 μg/mL para fluconazol, indicando que esta cepa ATCC 28957 é sensível a ambos os fármacos. Os valores de k, EC50 e kmax foram determinados para vários múltiplos das CIM de cada fármaco (0,03×, 0,06×, 0,25×, 0,5×, 1× 4×, 16×, 32× e 64×). O valor médio de k foi de 0,38 h-1, EC50 foi de 1,26 ± 0,18 μg/mL e 0,32 ± 0,06 μg/mL e kmax foi de 0,95 ± 0,21 h-1 e 0,64 ± 0,12 h-1 para FLC e VRC, respectivamente. Por fim, de posse dos parâmetros calculados através do modelo PK-PD foram realizadas simulações dos desfechos de tratamento para meningite criptocócica no cenário clínico para ambos os fármacos após administração das doses 200 e 400 mg de voriconazol e 800 e 2000 mg de fluconazol por dez semanas. Através das simulações conclui-se que para fluconazol há 25% de insucesso na dose de 800 mg e 10% na dose de 2000 mg com um tempo médio de 3 semanas para erradicação da levedura. Para o voriconazol, o EC50 teve pouco impacto sobre a erradicação do fungo e, em todos os cenários foi observada uma erradicação completa do fungo em curto espaço de tempo (1 - 2 semanas). Os resultados incentivam o uso de voriconazol nos pacientes com meningite criptocócica e uma reavaliação do uso de fluconazol. / The aim of this thesis was to develop a pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) model for the evaluation of systemic antifungal dosing regimens for the treatment of brain infections associated with Cryptococcus neorformans. Firstly a model of brain infection in immunocompetent male Wistar rats was established. The animals were inoculated by intravenously administration of 1. 106 CFU/mL of Cryptococcus neoformans var neoformans (ATCC 28957) into the tail lateral vein. The presence of yeasts in the brain, lung, the liver, kidneys and the heart was evaluated after 7, 10 and 14 days. The biochemical parameters (leucocytes counting, GOT, GPT, urea, creatinine, albumin and CK) and cerebral vascular permeability with Evans blue were investigated. After 10 days post inoculation an infection with characteristics similar in humans was produced. C. neoformans was present in all tissues investigated by histological and microbiological analyzes and differences in albumin, urea, GPT and CK levels, alterations in the number of leukocytes (monocytes and neutrophils), and elevation of cerebral permeability to Evans blue were observed in infected animals. After establishing and characterizing the infection, the plasma and cerebral tissue pharmacokinetics were evaluated by microdialysis after administration of fluconazole (FLU) (20 mg/kg, iv bolus) and voriconazole (VRC) (5 mg/kg, iv bolus) in healthy (n = 13) and infected Wistar rats (n = 13). A population pharmacokinetic model (PopPK) was build for each drug, based on data from plasma and tissue concentrations vs. time of healthy and infected groups. The brain penetration of voriconazole was shown to be high in infected animals (fThealthy = 0.85 vs fTinfected = 1.86) than in healthy ones. The two-compartment model with Michaelis Menten elimination best described the concentration of VRC in plasma and tissue. The covariate infection was included in V2 and VM. The great potential of voriconazole to treat meningitis associated with C. neoformans was observed, as the levels reached in infected tissues were higher than the values described for MIC against C. neoformans (0.03 - 0.5 μg/mL). The pharmacokinetics of FLC was described using a two-compartment model with linear elimination including data from plasma and brain free concentrations for both groups investigated. In this model the covariate infection was attributed to parameter k21 and covariate weight was assigned to parameters V1 and V2. With this popPK model, the pharmacodynamic outcomes were investigated considering the level of brain exposure at doses of 125 and 250 mg/kg for rats and 400 - 2000 mg for humans observed in healthy and infected tissue through the probability of attaining the target (PTA - fAUC/MIC = 389) of fluconazole using Monte Carlo simulations. These simulations demonstrated limited use of fluconazole in monotherapy for the treatment of C. neoformans meningitis. After the pharmacokinetics modeling, the pharmacodynamic studies were carried out using the methodology of time-kill curves of fluconazole and voriconazole versus C. neoformans. The kill curves data were suitably modeled with the modified Emax PK-PD model including a growth delay term. MIC was determined for both drugs by microdilution and values were 0.03 μg.mL-1 for voriconazole and 0.5 μg.mL-1 for fluconazole, indicating that this ATCC 28957 strain is sensitive to both drugs. The values of k, EC50 and kmax were determined for several MIC multiples of each drug (0.03 ×, 0.06 ×, 0.25 ×, 0,5×, 1 × 4 ×, 16 ×, 32 × and 64 ×). The mean value of k was 0.38 h-1, EC50 was 1.26 ± 0.18 μg.mL-1 and 0.32 ± 0.06 μg.mL-1 and kmax was 0.95 ± 0.21 h -1 and 0.64 ± 0.12 h-1 for FLC and VRC, respectively. Finally, the parameters obtained using the PK-PD model were used to simulate treatment outcomes for cryptococcal meningitis in the clinical setting for both drugs after administration of 200 and 400 mg of voriconazole and 800 and 2000 mg of fluconazole for 10 weeks. By the simulations it is concluded that for fluconazole there is a 25% rate of failure at the dose of 800 mg and 10% at the dose of 2000 mg with an average time of 3 weeks for eradication of the yeast. For voriconazole, the EC50 had little impact on fungus eradication and, in all scenarios complete eradication of the fungus was observed in a short time (1 - 2 weeks). The results encourage the use of voriconazole in patients with cryptococcal meningitis and a reassessment of fluconazole use.

Objetivos: O objetivo deste trabalho foi o desenvolvimento de um modelo farmacocinético/farmacodinâmico (PK/PD) para descrever o efeito antifúngico voriconazol (VRC) contra espécies de Candida. Método: Para alcançar este objetivo as seguintes etapas foram realizadas: i) foi adaptado e padronizado modelo de candidíase disseminada em ratos Wistar imunocompetentes e imunocomprometidos com Candida sp.; ii) foram validados métodos analíticos de LC-MS/MS e LC-UV para o doseamento do VRC em amostras de plasma e microdialisado de tecido; iii) foram estabelecidas as condições para microdiálise do VRC e as taxas de recuperação in vitro, por perda e ganho, e em tecido renal in vivo, por retrodiálise, foram determinadas; iv) foi avaliada a PK não-linear do VRC após administração i.v. bolus das doses de 2,5, 5 e 10 mg/kg e a biodisponibilidade oral foi determinada em roedores; v) a penetração renal do VRC após administração oral das doses de 40 e 60 mg/kg foi determinada em ratos Wistar sadios e infectados com C. albicans ou C. krusei; e (vi) o perfil fungistático do VRC contra C. albicans e C. krusei foi determinado utilizando modelo de infecção experimental in vitro onde foram simuladas as concentrações livres renais do VRC esperadas em humanos após administração oral e i.v. de diferentes posologias. Os dados de cinética e dinâmica obtidos foram modelados com equação de Emax modificada, com auxílio do Scientist®. Resultados e Conclusões: i) O modelo de candidíase disseminada foi adaptado com sucesso para ratos Wistar. C. albicans apresentou maior virulência com Log UFC/g de tecido renal de 5,51 ± 0,56 e 7,29 ± 0,26, após 2 e 7 dias de infecção em animais imunocompetentes, respectivamente. Em animais imunocomprometidos a contagem foi de 6,43 ± 0,59 Log UFC/g após 2 dias de infecção, com morte de todo o grupo dentro de 4 dias. As espécies não-albicans (C. krusei e C. glabrata) apresentaram um perfil de infecção semelhante em animais imunocompetentes (Log UFC/g = 2,98 ± 0,27 para C. krusei e 2,48 ± 0,46 para C. glabrata). Entretanto, nos animais imunocomprometidos, C. krusei promoveu morte de todo o grupo em até 7 dias, enquanto C. glabrata causou apenas um aumento no grau de infecção (Log UFC/g = 6,98 ± 0,48). ii) Os métodos analíticos por LC-UV e LCMS/ MS para quantificação do VRC foram validados. As curvas de calibração foram lineares na faixa de 50 a 2500 ng/mL (r > 0,98) para ambos os métodos. Os ensaios de precisão intra e inter-dia foram > 94,9 e 95,8 %, para microdialisado por HPLC-UV e > 87,5 e 92,3 % para LC-MS/MS em plasma, respectivamente. A exatidão foi > 89,1 % para HPLC-UV e > 88,4 % para LC-MS/MS. iii) A avaliação do VRC por microdiálise mostrou que a recuperação é concentração independente (0,1–2,0 μg/mL). O VRC entretanto, devido a sua moderada lipofilia, liga-se às tubulações do sistema de microdiálise, gerando diferenças entre a recuperação determinada pelo método de perda (retrodiálise) e de ganho (diálise) in vitro, as quais puderam ser corrigidas após o cálculo do coeficiente de ligação do fármaco ao sistema. A recuperação in vivo após correção da ligação ao sistema foi de 24,5 ± 2,8 % iv) A análise dos perfis de plasmáticos do VRC obtidos em ratos Wistar após administração oral mostrou comportamento não-linear, compatível com saturação de eliminação. A avaliação compartimental dos perfis i.v. de diferentes doses, utilizando modelo de três compartimentos com eliminação de Michaelis-Menten, permitiu a determinação da constante de Michaelis (KM) de 0,58 μg/mL e da velocidade máxima da eliminação (VM) de 2,63 μg/h, em média. A modelagem simultânea dos dados plasmáticos (40 mg/kg) e i.v. (10 mg/kg) permitiu a determinação da biodisponibilidade oral do VRC em ratos, que foi de 82,8%. v) A fração de penetração renal do VRC, determinada por microdiálise em ratos sadios e infectados, foi de 0,34 ± 0,01, similar a fração livre do fármaco no plasma (0,34), indicando que as concentrações livres renais de VRC são semelhantes às concentrações livres plasmáticas e que as mesmas não se modificam devido a infecções causadas por Candida sp. vi) Os parâmetros da modelagem PK/PD do efeito do VRC contra espécies de Candida em modelo de infecção experimental in vitro obtidos foram: CE50 de 2,96 μg/mL e Kmax = 0,26 h-1 para C. albicans e CE50 de 3,47 μg/mL e Kmax = 0,51 h-1 para C. krusei. Houve diferença estatística apenas no Kmax para as duas espécies (α = 0,05) indicando uma maior suscetibilidade da C. krusei ao VRC. O modelo PK/PD de Emax modificado utilizado foi capaz de descrever adequadamente os perfis de inibição do crescimento de Candida sp em função do tempo, para todos os regimes terapêuticos do VRC avaliados, podendo ser usado para otimização da terapia com esse fármaco. / Objectives: The aim of this work was the development of a pharmacokineticpharmacodynamic model (PK/PD) to describe the fungistatic effect of voriconazole (VRC) against Candida species. Method: To reach this objective, the following steps were done: i) a disseminated candidiasis model to immunocompetent and immunocompromised Wistar rats with Candida sp was adapted and standardized; ii) analytical methods of LC-MS/MS and LC-UV for measurement of VRC in plasma and microdialysate tissue samples were validated; iii) microdialysis conditions of VRC and the recoveries rate in vitro, by loss and gain, in renal tissue in vivo, by retrodialysis, were determined; iv) the non-linear PK of VRC after i.v. bolus administration of 2.5, 5 e 10 mg/kg doses were evaluated and the oral bioavailability in rodents was estimated; v) tissue penetration of VRC after oral administration of 40 and 60 mg/kg was determined in healthy and infected by C. albicans or C. krusei Wistar male rats; vi) the fungistatic profile of VRC against C. albicans and C. krusei was determined using a experimental infection model in vitro, where the free renal concentrations of VRC expected in humans after oral and iv administration of different dosing regimens were simulated. The kinetic and dynamic data obtained were modeled using an Emax modified model, with aid of Scientist®. Results and Conclusions: i) The disseminated candidiasis model was successfully adapted to Wistar rats. C. albicans showing high virulence with Log CFU/g of renal tissue of 5.51 ± 0.56 and 7.29 ± 0.26, after 2 and 7 days of infection in immunocompetent animals, respectively. In immunocompromised animals, the counting was 6.43 ± 0.59 Log CFU/g after 2 days of infection, with whole group death within 4 days. Non-albicans especies (C. krusei e C. glabrata) showed a similar infection profile in immunocompetent and immunocompromised animals (Log CFU/g = 2.98 ± 0.27 to C. krusei e 2.48 ± 0.46 to C. glabrata). However, in immunocompromised animals, C. krusei causes death in the whole group up to 7 days, instead, C. glabrata causes only a low increase in the infection degree (Log CFU/g = 6.98 ± 0.48). ii) The analytical methods of HPLC-UV and LC-MS/MS to VRC quantification were validated. Linearity was between 50 - 2500 range ng/mL (r > 0.98) for both methods. The intra and inter-day precision assays were > 94.9 e 95.8 %, for microdialysate using LC-UV and > 87.5 e 92.3 % using LCxx MS/MS for plasma, respectively. The accuracy was > 89.1 % for HPLC-UV and > 88.4 % for LC-MS/MS. iii) The evaluation of VRC by microdialysis showed that recovery is concentration independent (0.1–2 μg/mL). VRC, however, due to its moderate lipophilic characteristic, binds to the microdialysis system tubing’s, generating differences between recoveries determined by loss (retrodialysis) and gain (dialysis) in vitro methods, which could be corrected after determination of drug’s binding coefficient to the system. The in vivo recovery determined after correction of system binding was 24.5 ± 2.8 %. iv) VRC plasma profiles analysis obtained from Wistar rats after oral administration showed a nonlinear behavior, compatible with saturable elimination. The compartmental evaluation of i.v. profiles in different doses, employing the a compartment model with Michaelis-Menten elimination, allowed to determine the Michaelis-Menten constant (KM) of 0.58 μg/mL and the maximum velocity (VM) of 2.63 μg/h, in average. The simultaneous modeling of oral (40 mg/kg) and iv (10 mg/kg) plasma data allowed the determination of the oral bioavailability of VRC in rats, equal to 82.8%. v) The VRC renal penetration fraction, determined by microdialysis in healthy and infected rats, was 0.34 ± 0.01, similar to the free unbound fraction in plasma (0.34), showing that VRC free renal concentration levels are similar to the unbound plasma concentrations and that did not change due the infection associated to Candida sp. vi) The parameters of PK-PD modeling of VRC effect against Candida species in the in vitro experimental infection model obtained were: EC50 de 2.97 μg/mL and Kmax = 0.203 h−1 to C. albicans and EC50 of 3.47 μg/mL and Kmax = 0.51 h−1 to C. krusei. There is a statistical difference only in Kmax value for the two species (α = 0.05), showing a higher susceptibility of C. krusei to VRC. The PK/PD Emax modified model employed was able to describe adequately the growth inhibition profiles of Candida sp in function of time, for all VRC dosing regimens evaluated, and can be used for therapy optimization with this drug.

Objetivos: Avaliar a adequabilidade do modelo farmacocinético-farmacodinâmico (PK-PD) (NOLTING et al., 1996b) para modelar o efeito bactericida da piperacilina (PIP) em ratos Wistar infectados experimentalmente com Escherichia coli ATCC 25922. Metodologia: Experimentos de Farmacocinética: Determinou-se as concentrações plasmáticas totais e livres teciduais de PIP, através de microdiálise (MD), após administração de 240 mg/kg i.v. bolus a ratos Wistar granulocitopênicos (ciclofosfamida) infectados no músculo esquelético (105 UFC/mL) com E. coli. As amostras de plasma e de MD foram analisadas por CLAE. As sondas de MD foram calibradas por retrodiálise. Experimentos de Farmacodinâmica: Os animais imunodeprimidos e infectados foram tratados com PIP nas doses de 120 ou 240 mg/kg, em intervalos de 4/4, 6/6 e 8/8 horas por 24 h. Em tempos pré-determinados, os animais foram sacrificados (n = 3/tempo), o músculo infectado foi retirado, homogeneizado e o número de UFC/mL foi determinado em placas de ágar-sangue, após diluições sucessivas. Um grupo não tratado foi utilizado como controle. Modelagem PK-PD: A partir dos dados farmacocinéticos e farmacodinâmicos obtidos, avaliou-se efeito de morte bacteriana em função do tempo com o auxílio do programa de regressão não-linear SCIENTIST® v.2.0. Resultados e Discussão: Os parâmetros farmacocinéticos após a administração de PIP (240 mg/kg) foram t½ de 40 ± 8 min; CL de 0,46 ± 0,021 (L/h/kg) e um Vdss de 0,30 ± 0,06 L/kg. O perfil de PIP livre tecidual foi previsto a partir dos parâmetros plasmáticos utilizando ajuste simultâneo dos dados de plasma e tecido e um fator de proporcionalidade de 0,342 ± 0,101. Os parâmetros do modelo PK-PD obtidos foram: EC50 de 1,31 ± 0,27 μg/mL e kmax 1,39 ± 0,20 h-1. Os valores dos parâmetros da modelagem PK-PD obtidos in vivo diferiram dos descritos na literatura para o mesmo antibiótico e bactéria quando simulados in vitro. Conclusões: O modelo Emax-modificado descreveu os perfis de crescimento e morte bacteriana em função do tempo obtidos nas diferentes posologias testadas sendo adequado para modelagem PK-PD da piperacilina nas condições experimentais investigadas. / Purpose: The objective of this study was to model the killing effect of a β-lactam antibiotic, piperacillin (PIP), in neutropenic and E. coli ATCC 25922 infected rats after different dosing regimens using a modified Emax PK-PD model. Methodology: Pharmacokinetic studies: Total plasma and free tissue concentrations of PIP, determined by microdialysis, were investigated after i.v. bolus of 240 mg/kg of the drug to immunecompromised (cyclophosphamide) and E. coli infected (107 CFU) Wistar rats. Microdialysis probes recoveries were determined by retrodialysis. Plasma and tissue samples were analyzed by HPLC. Pharmacodynamic studies: The infected rats were treated with iv bolus PIP 120 mg/kg or 240 mg/kg q8h, q6h, q4h. Three animals were sacrificed at predetermined times up to 24 hours. The infected muscle was removed, homogenized and the number of CFU/mL was determined by plate counting after 24 hours of incubation at 37ºC. A control group without treatment was used. PK-PD modeling: PIP killing effect as a function of time was fitted using the Emax-modified model with the aid of a non-linear regression computer program SCIENTIST® v.2.0. Results and Discussion: The pharmacokinetic parameters determined for PIP 240 mg/kg iv bolus were: t½ of 40 ± 8 min; CL of 0.46 ± 0.021 (L/h/kg) and Vdss of 0.30 ± 0.06 L/kg. Piperacillin free tissue levels were predicted using plasma data ina a simultaneous fitting with a proportionality factor of 0.342 ± 0.101. The parameters derived from PK-PD modeling were: bacterial killing rate (kmax) of 1.39 ± 0.20 h-1 concentration to produce 50% of de maximum effect (EC50) of 1.31 ± 0.27 μg/mL. The PK-PD parameters determined in vivo were different from those reported for the same bacteria and drug in vitro. Conclusions: The Emax model adequately described PIP antibacterial effect in animals for the different dosing regimens investigated.

Objetivos: O objetivo deste trabalho foi o estabelecimento de um modelo PK/PD capaz de descrever o efeito fungistático de fluconazol (FCZ) contra diferentes espécies de Candida. Método: a fim de atingir esse objetivo, as seguintes etapas foram realizadas: i) métodos bioanalíticos foram desenvolvidos e validados em CL-EM/EM e CLAE/UV para a determinação do FCZ em plasma e microdialisado renal de rato, respectivamente; ii) a verificação das condições da microdiálise do FCZ e sua recuperação in vitro pelos métodos da diálise (RRD) e retrodiálise (RRE) e in vivo por RRE; iii) avaliação das concentrações livres de FCZ no rim de ratos Wistar saudáveis e infectados por Candida albicans através do uso da microdiálise após a administração de 10 mg/kg de FCZ pela via intravenosa e de 50 mg/kg de FCZ pela via oral, a fim de estabelecer a relação entre os níveis livres renais e plasmáticos totais do FCZ em ambas as condições, iv) a modelagem PK/PD do efeito fungistático do FCZ contra Candida albicans, Candida parapsilosis e Candida tropicalis empregando o modelo de Emax-modificado e a determinação de seus parâmetros PK/PD utilizando um modelo de infecção in vitro, em que as concentrações renais livres de FCZ esperadas em seres humanos após diferentes posologias foram simuladas: a) concentrações flutuantes do fármaco - 200, 400 e 800 mg q8h, q12h e q24h - e concentrações constantes, múltiplas da concentração inibitória mínima (CIM) – 0,5, 1, 2, 4 e 8 vezes a CIM. Os dados de farmacocinética e farmacodinâmica foram modelados com o auxílio do software Scientist®. Resultados e Conclusões: i) os métodos analíticos para quantificação do FCZ foram desenvolvidos e validados, sendo específicos, exatos e precisos, com limites de quantificação de 100 ng/mL e 10 ng/mL para detecção em plasma e microdialisado, respectivamente, ii) as recuperações determinadas in vitro por RRD e RRE foram independentes do fluxo e da concentração. Os valores de recuperação das sondas de microdiálise determinada in vitro por RRD (53,4 ± 2,3%) e RRE (54,2 ± 1,8%) e in vivo por RRE (49,7 ± 2,2%) foram estatisticamente semelhantes nas condições experimentais investigadas (α = 0,05), indicando que o FCZ é um fármaco adequado para ser avaliado por esta abordagem; iii) não houve diferença estatística na área sob a curva de concentração versus tempo (AUC 0-∞) renal livre e plasmática total em ratos Wistar, saudáveis ou infectados por Candida albicans, pela mesma via de administração investigada. A penetração renal do FCZ foi semelhante para ambas as doses nas condições investigadas (variando entre 0,77 e 0,84) e a sua fração plasmática livre, determinada por microdiálise, foi independente da concentração (86,0 ± 2,0%). Utilizando as equações farmacocinéticas apropriadas, os parâmetros plasmáticos farmacocinéticos determinados foram capazes de prever os valores de concentrações livres renais em ratos sadios e infectados, assumindo que a ligação a proteínas plasmáticas é conhecida. Além disso, a candidíase sistêmica não interfere na penetração renal do FCZ, indicando que as suas concentrações plasmáticas livres são boas preditoras do valor de concentração tecidual livre (farmacologicamente ativa) em animais sadios e infectados, podendo ser utilizada para estabelecer e otimizar os regimes posológicos do FCZ para o tratamento de candidíase disseminada; iv) a concentração que causa 50% do efeito fungistático máximo (CE50) do FCZ foi estatisticamente menor para C. albicans (4.4 ± 1.4 μg/mL) do que para C. parapsilosis e C. tropicalis, 8.1 ± 1.6 μg/mL e 8.3 ± 1.8 μg/mL respectivamente, ao simular-se diferentes regimes de dose, bem como concentrações constantes do fármaco (CE50, C. albicans = 3.5 ± 1.3 μg/mL; CE50, C. parapisolosis = 6.1 ± 1.2 μg/mL; CE50, C. tropicalis = 6.5 ± 1.2 μg/mL) (α = 0.05). A taxa de morte fúngica (kmax) foi estatisticamente semelhante para todas as espécies de Candida estudadas. (aproximadamente 0,4 h-1) e sempre estatisticamente menor do que a taxa de crescimento fúngico, k0 (aproximadamente de 2 h-1) (α = 0,05). O modelo PK/PD foi capaz de descrever o efeito fungistático do FCZ contra as três espécies de Candida investigadas in vitro. O FCZ se mostrou igualmente eficaz contra essas leveduras, porém sua potência foi maior frente a C.albicans do que frente a C. parapsilosis e C. tropicalis. O modelo PK/PD utilizado pode ser empregado para simular esquemas posológicos alternativos, para comparar o efeito farmacológico do FCZ com o efeito de outros antifúngicos e, finalmente, para otimizar a terapia deste fármaco para o tratamento de candidíase sistêmica. / Objective: The aim of this work was the development of a pharmacodynamic/pharmacokinetic (PK/PD) model able to describe the fungistatic effect of fluconazole (FCZ) against Candida spp. Method: in order to reach this objective, the following steps were realized: i) bioanalytical methods were developed and validated in LC-MS/MS and HPLC/UV for determination FCZ in rat plasma and kidney microdialisate, respectively; ii) analysis of microdialysis of FCZ conditions and its recovery in vitro by dialysis (RRD) and retrodialysis (RRE) methods and in vivo by RRE; iii) evaluation of free levels of FCZ in the kidney of healthy and Candida albicans infected Wistar rats using microdialysis, after a 10 mg/kg i.v. dosing and 50 mg/kg oral dosing in order to establish the relationship between free renal and total plasma levels in both conditions; iv) the fungistatic pharmacological effect of FCZ against Candida albicans, Candida parapsilosis and Candida tropicalis ATCC strains by pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) modeling of the time–kill curves employing an Emax model was determined using an in vitro infection model, where the free kidney concentrations of FCZ in humans after different posologies were simulated: a) fluctuating drug concentrations - 200, 400 and 800 mg q8h, q12h e q24h – and constant concentrations, multiples of the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) – 0,5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 times the MIC. The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data were modeled with the software Sientist®. Results and Conclusions: i) the analytical methods developed were specific, precise, and accurate with limits of quantification of 100 ng/mL and 10 ng/mL for microdialisate and plasma, respectively; ii) the recoveries determined by RRD and RRE in vitro were concentration independent and flow rate dependent on the ranges investigated. The recoveries determined in vitro by RRD (53.4 ± 2.3%) and RRE (54.2 ± 1.8%) and in vivo by RRE (52.3 ± 2.3%) were statistically similar under the experimental conditions investigated (α = 0.05), indicating that FCZ is a suitable drug to be evaluated by microdialysis; iii) There were no statistical differences between the area under the free concentration-time curve (AUC 0–∞) in plasma and in tissue for either healthy or infected groups for the same dose regimen investigated. The antifungal tissue penetration was similar for both doses and all conditions investigated (ranging from 0.77 to 0.84). Unbound FCZ plasma fraction, determined by microdialysis, was concentration-independent (86.0 ± 2.0%). Using appropriate equations, pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters determined by fitting plasma concentration-time profiles were able to predict free renal levels.The results showed FCZ easily penetrates the kidney and PK parameters determined in plasma can be used to predict free tissue levels of the drug assuming the drug protein binding is known. Furthermore, systemic candidiasis does not interfere with the drug kidney penetration, indicating that free plasma concentrations are a good surrogate for active levels in both healthy and infected kidney and can be used to establish and optimize FCZ dosing regimens to treat disseminated candidiasis; iv) FCZ concentration necessary to produce 50% of the maximal fungistati effect (EC50) was statiscally smaller against C. albicans (4.4 ± 1.4 μg/mL) than against C. parapsilosis and C. tropicalis, 8.1 ± 1.6 μg/mL and 8.3 ± 1.8 μg/mL respectively, when simulating multiple dosing regimens as well as constant concentrations (EC50, C. albicans = 3.5 ± 1.3 μg/mL; EC50, C. parapisolosis = 6.1 ± 1.2 μg/mL; EC50, C. tropicalis = 6.5 ± 1.2 μg/mL) (α = 0.05). The maximum killing rate constant (kmax) was statistically similar for the Candida spp. (approximately 0.4 h-1) and always statistically smaller than the natural grown rate k0 (approximately 2 h-1) (α = 0.05). The PK/PD model was able to describe the fungistatic effect of fluconazole in vitro against the three Candida spp investigated. Fluconazole showed equivalent efficacy against these yeasts and higher potency against C. albicans than against C. parapsilosis and C. tropicalis. The model can be used to simulate alternative regimens, to compare its pharmacological effect with other antifungals and to optimize FCZ therapy to treat systemic candidiasis.

Objetivos: O objetivo deste trabalho foi o desenvolvimento de um modelo farmacocinético/farmacodinâmico (PK/PD) para descrever o efeito antifúngico voriconazol (VRC) contra espécies de Candida. Método: Para alcançar este objetivo as seguintes etapas foram realizadas: i) foi adaptado e padronizado modelo de candidíase disseminada em ratos Wistar imunocompetentes e imunocomprometidos com Candida sp.; ii) foram validados métodos analíticos de LC-MS/MS e LC-UV para o doseamento do VRC em amostras de plasma e microdialisado de tecido; iii) foram estabelecidas as condições para microdiálise do VRC e as taxas de recuperação in vitro, por perda e ganho, e em tecido renal in vivo, por retrodiálise, foram determinadas; iv) foi avaliada a PK não-linear do VRC após administração i.v. bolus das doses de 2,5, 5 e 10 mg/kg e a biodisponibilidade oral foi determinada em roedores; v) a penetração renal do VRC após administração oral das doses de 40 e 60 mg/kg foi determinada em ratos Wistar sadios e infectados com C. albicans ou C. krusei; e (vi) o perfil fungistático do VRC contra C. albicans e C. krusei foi determinado utilizando modelo de infecção experimental in vitro onde foram simuladas as concentrações livres renais do VRC esperadas em humanos após administração oral e i.v. de diferentes posologias. Os dados de cinética e dinâmica obtidos foram modelados com equação de Emax modificada, com auxílio do Scientist®. Resultados e Conclusões: i) O modelo de candidíase disseminada foi adaptado com sucesso para ratos Wistar. C. albicans apresentou maior virulência com Log UFC/g de tecido renal de 5,51 ± 0,56 e 7,29 ± 0,26, após 2 e 7 dias de infecção em animais imunocompetentes, respectivamente. Em animais imunocomprometidos a contagem foi de 6,43 ± 0,59 Log UFC/g após 2 dias de infecção, com morte de todo o grupo dentro de 4 dias. As espécies não-albicans (C. krusei e C. glabrata) apresentaram um perfil de infecção semelhante em animais imunocompetentes (Log UFC/g = 2,98 ± 0,27 para C. krusei e 2,48 ± 0,46 para C. glabrata). Entretanto, nos animais imunocomprometidos, C. krusei promoveu morte de todo o grupo em até 7 dias, enquanto C. glabrata causou apenas um aumento no grau de infecção (Log UFC/g = 6,98 ± 0,48). ii) Os métodos analíticos por LC-UV e LCMS/ MS para quantificação do VRC foram validados. As curvas de calibração foram lineares na faixa de 50 a 2500 ng/mL (r > 0,98) para ambos os métodos. Os ensaios de precisão intra e inter-dia foram > 94,9 e 95,8 %, para microdialisado por HPLC-UV e > 87,5 e 92,3 % para LC-MS/MS em plasma, respectivamente. A exatidão foi > 89,1 % para HPLC-UV e > 88,4 % para LC-MS/MS. iii) A avaliação do VRC por microdiálise mostrou que a recuperação é concentração independente (0,1–2,0 μg/mL). O VRC entretanto, devido a sua moderada lipofilia, liga-se às tubulações do sistema de microdiálise, gerando diferenças entre a recuperação determinada pelo método de perda (retrodiálise) e de ganho (diálise) in vitro, as quais puderam ser corrigidas após o cálculo do coeficiente de ligação do fármaco ao sistema. A recuperação in vivo após correção da ligação ao sistema foi de 24,5 ± 2,8 % iv) A análise dos perfis de plasmáticos do VRC obtidos em ratos Wistar após administração oral mostrou comportamento não-linear, compatível com saturação de eliminação. A avaliação compartimental dos perfis i.v. de diferentes doses, utilizando modelo de três compartimentos com eliminação de Michaelis-Menten, permitiu a determinação da constante de Michaelis (KM) de 0,58 μg/mL e da velocidade máxima da eliminação (VM) de 2,63 μg/h, em média. A modelagem simultânea dos dados plasmáticos (40 mg/kg) e i.v. (10 mg/kg) permitiu a determinação da biodisponibilidade oral do VRC em ratos, que foi de 82,8%. v) A fração de penetração renal do VRC, determinada por microdiálise em ratos sadios e infectados, foi de 0,34 ± 0,01, similar a fração livre do fármaco no plasma (0,34), indicando que as concentrações livres renais de VRC são semelhantes às concentrações livres plasmáticas e que as mesmas não se modificam devido a infecções causadas por Candida sp. vi) Os parâmetros da modelagem PK/PD do efeito do VRC contra espécies de Candida em modelo de infecção experimental in vitro obtidos foram: CE50 de 2,96 μg/mL e Kmax = 0,26 h-1 para C. albicans e CE50 de 3,47 μg/mL e Kmax = 0,51 h-1 para C. krusei. Houve diferença estatística apenas no Kmax para as duas espécies (α = 0,05) indicando uma maior suscetibilidade da C. krusei ao VRC. O modelo PK/PD de Emax modificado utilizado foi capaz de descrever adequadamente os perfis de inibição do crescimento de Candida sp em função do tempo, para todos os regimes terapêuticos do VRC avaliados, podendo ser usado para otimização da terapia com esse fármaco. / Objectives: The aim of this work was the development of a pharmacokineticpharmacodynamic model (PK/PD) to describe the fungistatic effect of voriconazole (VRC) against Candida species. Method: To reach this objective, the following steps were done: i) a disseminated candidiasis model to immunocompetent and immunocompromised Wistar rats with Candida sp was adapted and standardized; ii) analytical methods of LC-MS/MS and LC-UV for measurement of VRC in plasma and microdialysate tissue samples were validated; iii) microdialysis conditions of VRC and the recoveries rate in vitro, by loss and gain, in renal tissue in vivo, by retrodialysis, were determined; iv) the non-linear PK of VRC after i.v. bolus administration of 2.5, 5 e 10 mg/kg doses were evaluated and the oral bioavailability in rodents was estimated; v) tissue penetration of VRC after oral administration of 40 and 60 mg/kg was determined in healthy and infected by C. albicans or C. krusei Wistar male rats; vi) the fungistatic profile of VRC against C. albicans and C. krusei was determined using a experimental infection model in vitro, where the free renal concentrations of VRC expected in humans after oral and iv administration of different dosing regimens were simulated. The kinetic and dynamic data obtained were modeled using an Emax modified model, with aid of Scientist®. Results and Conclusions: i) The disseminated candidiasis model was successfully adapted to Wistar rats. C. albicans showing high virulence with Log CFU/g of renal tissue of 5.51 ± 0.56 and 7.29 ± 0.26, after 2 and 7 days of infection in immunocompetent animals, respectively. In immunocompromised animals, the counting was 6.43 ± 0.59 Log CFU/g after 2 days of infection, with whole group death within 4 days. Non-albicans especies (C. krusei e C. glabrata) showed a similar infection profile in immunocompetent and immunocompromised animals (Log CFU/g = 2.98 ± 0.27 to C. krusei e 2.48 ± 0.46 to C. glabrata). However, in immunocompromised animals, C. krusei causes death in the whole group up to 7 days, instead, C. glabrata causes only a low increase in the infection degree (Log CFU/g = 6.98 ± 0.48). ii) The analytical methods of HPLC-UV and LC-MS/MS to VRC quantification were validated. Linearity was between 50 - 2500 range ng/mL (r > 0.98) for both methods. The intra and inter-day precision assays were > 94.9 e 95.8 %, for microdialysate using LC-UV and > 87.5 e 92.3 % using LCxx MS/MS for plasma, respectively. The accuracy was > 89.1 % for HPLC-UV and > 88.4 % for LC-MS/MS. iii) The evaluation of VRC by microdialysis showed that recovery is concentration independent (0.1–2 μg/mL). VRC, however, due to its moderate lipophilic characteristic, binds to the microdialysis system tubing’s, generating differences between recoveries determined by loss (retrodialysis) and gain (dialysis) in vitro methods, which could be corrected after determination of drug’s binding coefficient to the system. The in vivo recovery determined after correction of system binding was 24.5 ± 2.8 %. iv) VRC plasma profiles analysis obtained from Wistar rats after oral administration showed a nonlinear behavior, compatible with saturable elimination. The compartmental evaluation of i.v. profiles in different doses, employing the a compartment model with Michaelis-Menten elimination, allowed to determine the Michaelis-Menten constant (KM) of 0.58 μg/mL and the maximum velocity (VM) of 2.63 μg/h, in average. The simultaneous modeling of oral (40 mg/kg) and iv (10 mg/kg) plasma data allowed the determination of the oral bioavailability of VRC in rats, equal to 82.8%. v) The VRC renal penetration fraction, determined by microdialysis in healthy and infected rats, was 0.34 ± 0.01, similar to the free unbound fraction in plasma (0.34), showing that VRC free renal concentration levels are similar to the unbound plasma concentrations and that did not change due the infection associated to Candida sp. vi) The parameters of PK-PD modeling of VRC effect against Candida species in the in vitro experimental infection model obtained were: EC50 de 2.97 μg/mL and Kmax = 0.203 h−1 to C. albicans and EC50 of 3.47 μg/mL and Kmax = 0.51 h−1 to C. krusei. There is a statistical difference only in Kmax value for the two species (α = 0.05), showing a higher susceptibility of C. krusei to VRC. The PK/PD Emax modified model employed was able to describe adequately the growth inhibition profiles of Candida sp in function of time, for all VRC dosing regimens evaluated, and can be used for therapy optimization with this drug.