The aim of this study was to explore the differences and similarities between mindfulness and metacognitions, and to investigate how these constructs relate to symptoms of psychiatric disorders. The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), the Metacognitions Questionnaire 30 (MCQ-30), the Patient Health Questionnaire 9 (PHQ-9), the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Assessment 7 (GAD-7), and the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory Revised (OCI-R) were administered electronically by the use of social media and online forums, and 224 people completed all five questionnaires. The FFMQ factors of non-judge and awareness were significantly correlated with all of the MCQ factors, while observe, non-react and describe showed weak and varying correlations. Through forward regression analyses the MCQ factors measuring negative metacognitions, uncontrollability and danger and need to control thoughts, was found to be important predictors of symptoms of psychiatric disorders. Awareness and nonreact were found to be the FFMQ factors most important in predicting symptoms of psychiatric disorders. The findings supported both the metacognitive model, and parts of the mindfulness model.

Over the past decade children have been facing increasingly large deficits towards their ability to pay attention. The inability to pay attention impacts children in every facet of their lives from focusing at school, in their home life, after school activities, etc. Inattention may impact children’s school performance, formation of social bonds, and the inability to pick up on appropriate social cues. Recently, more research has been conducted looking at attention processes in children and how they impact their daily functioning. However, a void lies in the treatments to help increase these deficits. The impact inattention has on children may be potentially harmful to their development and overall well-being. One type of treatment that may be beneficial in decreasing attention deficits is mindfulness. Mindfulness is the non-judgmental observation of the ongoing stream of internal and external stimuli as they arise. Mindfulness is a treatment that has been recently gaining popularity in youth populations. Mindfulness is a type of treatment that differs from traditional approaches. The aim of mindfulness is to modify how a person interacts with their environment, teaching them to be aware of the stimuli in their environment, being in contact with their present moment, and helping to increase their overall attention. Experiment I sought to examine the effects of a 6 session, 120-minute Mindfulness Based Intervention utilizing mindfulness activities for children versus that of a Control Group when engaging in various attention tasks. The tasks targeted different attention processes (i.e. sustained attention and inhibitory control) and were presented to the participants at pre and posttest. Participants were selected for the Mindfulness Group or the Control Group based on age. Each participant completed four attention tasks (CPT-X Task, Go-No/Go Task, Visual Cancellation Task, and Crossword Puzzle Task) at the beginning of the study. After completion of the tasks, the Mindfulness Group participated in mindfulness activities and the Control Group continued with treatment as usual (their standard after school/summer curriculum). After the mindfulness training, all participants completed the attention tasks again. Experiment I results were indicative of statistically significant differences with respect to a number of dependent measures across groups. On the CPT-X task, a significant difference was shown at posttest in the experimental (M=1.90, SD=3.12) compared to the control (M=6.4, SD=5.18) group; t (40)=(-3.32), p= .002 on the total false alarms and targets missed. A significant difference was also shown at posttest in the experimental (M=1.55, SD=2.98) compared to the control (M=4.95, SD=4.75) group; t (40)= (-2.71), p= .01 for false alarms in the CPT-X task. When analyzing the Visual Cancellation Task outcomes, a significant difference was shown at posttest in the experimental (M=1.90, SD=3.12) compared to the control (M=6.4, SD=5.18) group; t (40)=(-3.32), p= .002 for total missed. A significant difference was also shown at posttest in the experimental (M=1.55, SD=2.98) compared to the control (M=4.95, SD=4.75) group; t (40)=(-2.71), p= .01 for false alarms on the Visual Cancellation Task. When both sustained attention tasks were compared to determine task outcomes, significant correlations were found between False Alarms on the CPT-X Task and the Visual Cancellation Task: r= .675, p= < .01. Significant correlations were also found between Total Missed on the CPT-X Task and the Visual Cancellation Task: r= .487, p< .05. These results suggest that on multiple attention tasks, sustained attention increased after exposure to mindfulness. Taken altogether, these results indicate that the introduction of a Mindfulness Based Intervention for children served to increase sustained attention. In order to compare the impact of a mindfulness-based training approach on impulsiveness, a multiple probe experimental design across participants was utilized in Experiment II with five participants formally diagnosed with ADHD. During baseline, the participants participated in the delay-discounting task and completed two questionnaires (AFQ-Y and CAMM). The training phases included mindfulness activities from Dixon (2014), ACT for Children with Autism and Emotional Disorders. After participating in the mindfulness activity, the participants were presented with the discounting task and the two questionnaires. Overall, increases in the participant’s discounting scores as measured by their AUC (Area Under the Curve) improved. This suggests that after receiving the mindfulness activities, the participants made less impulsive decisions towards monetary outcomes. Moderate changes on the CAMM self-report measure occurred for 3 out of 5 participants. The introduction of the mindfulness activities showed to increase self-control decision making and mindful awareness. Experiment III sought to examine the effects of a 5 day, 6 hour intensive mindfulness based camp utilizing mindfulness activities versus that of a control group. Participants for the experimental group were recruited via the community and the control group participants were age matched with the experimental group. Participants in the mindfulness camp participated in mindfulness activities across a 5 day period and completed two questionnaires (AFQ-Y and CAMM) before the camp began and again at the end of the last day. The AFQ-Y and CAMM questionnaires are empirically validated questionnaires used to measure psychological flexibility and mindful awareness outcomes with children. The control group did not receive any mindfulness training and completed the same two questionnaires 5 days apart. Results of Experiment III were indicative of statistically significant differences with respect to both dependent measures (AFQ-Y and CAMM) when analyzed within and across the experimental and control group. When analyzing the CAMM outcomes, a significant difference was shown at posttest in the experimental (M=29.66, SD=7.16) compared to the control (M=21.26, SD=8.22) group, t (30)= (2.98), p=.006. Additionally, a significant difference at posttest was shown in the experimental (M=17.13 SD=7.64) compared to the control (M=27.4, SD=12.30) group, t (30) = (-2.74), p= .010 on the AFQ-Y. Visual analysis of the AFQ-Y measure within the mindfulness group from pretest to posttest denotes a decrease in scores across 80% of the participants suggesting increases in psychological flexibility. Visual analysis of the CAMM measure within the mindfulness group from pretest to posttest shows an increase in scores across 67% of the participants suggesting increases in mindful awareness. Previous research has investigated the efficacy of mindfulness interventions with children with the total training contact hours varying. Results of the current study showed that in Experiment I, after a total of 120 minutes of mindfulness training, increases in attention were demonstrated across the experimental group. Experiment II demonstrated that mindfulness training was effective in altering decision making in children with ADHD and Experiment III results showed that after 30 hours of the mindfulness training, mindfulness served to facilitate increases in psychological flexibility and mindful awareness. Additionally, across experiments I and III, a greater influence on attention, mindful awareness, and psychological flexibility was shown compared to the control groups, suggesting the importance of mindfulness training with children.

The purpose of the present study is to determine the effect of thought acceptance and mindfulness on increasing the self-control behavior of children with ADHD. Initially, the researcher will determine the length of time in which each participant can currently tolerate the delay period to consume a preferred food item. Once a stable baseline of wait time is obtained, participants will be asked to select between a small, immediate portion of a food item and a larger, delayed portion of the food item. Following this phase, Self-Control Training will begin. During the Self-Control Training, the researcher will present a large portion of a preferred food item and the participant will be instructed to accept his thoughts about want to eat the food and become mindful of his thoughts and body sensations that he is experiencing while waiting to consume their preferred food item. After completing five training sessions, the experimenter will conduct probes measuring the selection of the small immediate and larger delayed portion as well as the length of time in which each participant can wait to consume the food items. Data collected from these probes will be compared to baseline data in order to determine the effects of accepting thoughts and mindfulness for enhancing self-control behavior. It is expected that participant's ability to tolerate the delay to consume the food item will gradually increase as the researcher continues to implement the Self-Control Training.

Mindfulness meditation has received increased attention from clinicians and researchers alike in recent decades and subsequently has been incorporated into treatments for a variety of psychological conditions, including anxiety. Although a small body of experimental research examining the influence of mindfulness on anxiety has developed, few studies to date have experimentally tested the effects of mindfulness meditations beyond a brief breathing meditation. This gap in the literature restricts our understanding of the efficacy of various brief mindfulness interventions currently utilized as clinical tools for anxiety. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to expand upon previous studies by examining the differential effect of two mindfulness exercises – a mindful body scan and a breathing meditation. More specifically, the current project investigated the influence of each intervention on 1) state mindfulness, 2) state cognitive anxiety, and 3) state somatic anxiety. Further, the project examined the moderating influence of participants’ reactions and compliance to each condition on pre-to-post intervention changes in cognitive and somatic anxiety. The current study suggests that brief mindfulness tasks induced state decentering, but not curiosity. However, there appears to be relative uniformity in the effect of both interventions on cognitive and somatic anxiety. Finally, the current study indicates that enjoyment while completing a mindfulness exercise is an important moderating factor on the efficacy of mindfulness interventions for anxiety.

This thesis investigated treatment outcomes and processes in young people with chronic pain. The first chapter describes a systematic review, which examined the effectiveness of acceptance and mindfulness-based interventions in improving pain-related outcomes in young people. Secondary aims were to review changes in proposed treatment processes following the interventions, and to compare the effectiveness of these interventions to control conditions. Although there was evidence to suggest that these treatments may improve outcomes, particularly levels of daily functioning, further research is needed to adequately assess the utility of acceptance and mindfulness-based approaches with paediatric chronic pain populations. The second chapter details a cross-sectional study of contextual and cognitive processes in adolescents with chronic pain. Specifically, the study tested the mediating effects of acceptance, catastrophising and kinesiophobia in the relationship between pain intensity and indicators of adjustment. Both acceptance and kinesiophobia mediated the effects of pain intensity on disability and quality of life, while catastrophising mediated the effect of pain intensity on levels of anxiety and depression. The results demonstrated that both contextual and cognitive factors are important determinants of young people’s well-being. Future research would benefit from gaining a greater understanding of how these processes interact with each other to affect pain-related outcomes.

abstract: This study develops a theoretical model that explains how leaders come to adapt their leadership behaviors to achieve follower effectiveness. Mindfulness theory suggests that mindful individuals are better able to engage in self-regulation and I consider empathy, response flexibility, and emotional regulation as three self-regulatory processes in particular which likely impact the leader-follower relationship. I suggest that leaders who have the ability to self-regulate in these three ways will be better able to engage in leadership behavior characterized by adapting or flexing the specific types of leadership they demonstrate according to the needs of the situation and what their followers most require at a given time to perform at their best. When followers receive the type of situationally-appropriate support in the form of leader behavior, they are more effective (e.g. have higher job performance and extra-role performance). I validate a new trait and state measure of workplace mindfulness with multiple samples and utilize this new scale to collect data from leaders and followers from a government organization to test the theoretical relationships proposed in this study. I utilize an experience sampling methodology (ESM) design over 10 days to investigate the within-leader variation among variables in the study given theory suggesting the dynamic nature of the mindfulness, self-regulation, and situational leadership constructs which may not adequately be captured when data are collected at one point in time. Finally, I introduce organizational constraints as a moderator of the relationship between leader mindfulness and leader self- regulation in order to understand how stressors and strains outside the control of a leader may overload a leader’s ability to ultimately self-regulate his/her behavior. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Business Administration 2015

abstract: An exploratory qualitative study was conducted using a grounded theory approach (Charmaz, 2006) to examine the subjective experiences of mindfulness. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 individuals who practice mindfulness on a regular basis. Data analysis revealed domains related to the experience, conditions, strategies and consequences related to the practice of mindfulness. The following main themes emerged: subjective experience, mechanism of practice, use of metaphors, contextual influences, and shift in perception. An emerging theoretical model related to the experience of mindfulness is also proposed. Implications, limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Counseling Psychology 2013

Research demonstrating the positive effects of Mindfulness-Based Interventions (MBIs) has led to a growing interest in the use of mindfulness across a range of populations and psychological difficulties. This thesis explores the feasibility and benefits of mindfulness in relation to self-esteem and psychosis. Paper one is a systematic review exploring the relationship between mindfulness and self-esteem. The review had two main aims: to synthesise and critically appraise studies exploring the association between mindfulness and self-esteem, and studies investigating the impact of MBIs on self-esteem. Thirty-two studies were identified and quality assessed to guide interpretation of results. All cross-sectional studies found significant positive correlations between dispositional mindfulness and self-esteem, whilst improvements in self-esteem were found in the majority of MBI studies. Despite largely positive findings, the review highlighted the need to interpret these with caution due to methodological weaknesses. Priorities for research were identified, with further investigations needed to assess the impact of mindfulness as an intervention for low self-esteem. Paper two is an empirical paper investigating the feasibility of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) for psychosis. Sixteen participants, with experience of psychosis, completed an 8-week MBCT group. A repeated measures design was used to explore psychological wellbeing and clinical outcomes following MBCT, including clinical functioning, mindfulness, psychotic symptoms, recovery, beliefs about self, others and voices; and to provide a preliminary exploration of changes in the way a person construes their self, others and their experience of psychosis, following MBCT, using repertory grids. Findings from this feasibility and pilot study were promising, indicating that MBCT groups for psychosis are feasible. Preliminary outcome data highlighted potential areas of change for further investigation in a large scale controlled trial, with possible improvements in participants’ self-reported ability to act with awareness and in recovery, and with some evidence of changes in construing following MBCT. The study demonstrated the feasibility and potential benefits of MBCT groups for people experiencing psychosis, and provided a platform for future research. Paper three is a critical reflection of the papers presented and the research process as a whole. Areas of strengths and weaknesses are highlighted, with an evaluation of the decisions made throughout. The implications for clinical practice are discussed as well as areas for further research.

Ethnic identity development is a process that occurs for all individuals, and weakness in ethnic identity is associated with numerous psychosocial difficulties. Security in ethnic identity can be difficult for those exposed to varying attitudes and behaviors in a multicultural society. As such, the current study examined the influence of mindfulness and self-compassion on ethnic identity development. a sample of 479 undergraduate students completed online self-report questionnaires measuring demographic information, mindfulness, self-compassion, ethnic identity status, and self-esteem. Results suggested that mindfulness and self-compassion are significant negative predictors of ethnic identity, and that self-compassion was a better predictor of ethnic identity status than was mindfulness. Self-compassion did not moderate the relationship between mindfulness and ethnic identity status, as was hypothesized. the sample included primarily Caucasian (n = 278) individuals born in the United States, which likely limited generalizability of findings. Implications of the current findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Those in human services, including social workers, hospital staff, and staff working with individuals with disabilities, experience high levels of stress and burnout. Those working in special education with individuals who display maladaptive behaviors can be particularly susceptible to this. This can lead to negative effects on physical and mental health. Stress and burnout can also lead to staff being less likely to perform aspects of their jobs optimally. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) posits that much burnout both results from and results in focusing on past or future events. Mindfulness training, in addition to ACT, can teach individuals to focus on the present moment. This study investigated the effects of mindfulness practice on (self-report inventory measures) of mindfulness (MAAS), psychological flexibility (AAQ-II) and WAAQ), and burnout (MBI), as well as on staff performance measures of number of staff initiated interactions with students and accuracy of data collection. for three individuals working at a school for children who display maladaptive behaviors. Post-treatment, all three of the participants improved in MAAS scores. Two improved in AAQ-II scores, and two also improved in WAAQ scores. MBI scores improved for two participants, mostly in the subsection of ‘burnout’. Two participants initiated more interactions with students post-treatment, and data collection accuracy improved post-treatment for two participants. All three participants improved post-treatment in at least three of the target areas. Implications and possibilities for future research are discussed.