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[pt] O dissulfeto de molibdênio bidimensional (MoS2 2D) tem atraído significativa atenção devido às suas propriedades eletrônicas e ópticas únicas, tornando-se um material promissor para diversas aplicações, como dispositivos optoeletrônicos e sistemas de armazenamento de energia. Esta tese investiga métodos para aprimorar a emissão de fotoluminescência (PL) de MoS2 monocamada por meio de diferentes tratamentos. Os experimentos realizados visaram criar defeitos na estrutura cristalina de forma controlada, atacando o MoS2 2D com íons. As amostras foram obtidas via Deposição Química a Vapor (CVD). As alterações morfológicas e características eletro-ópticas foram avaliadas por Microscopia de Força Atômica (AFM), Espectroscopia Raman Ressonante e Espectroscopia de Fotoluminescência (PL). A primeira rodada de experimentos utilizou um tratamento de Plasma de Nitrogênio. Evidências de AFM da integridade da morfologia são apresentadas, embora o sinal de PL tenha sido significativamente atenuado para os parâmetros utilizados. A Espectroscopia Raman mostra uma evolução de características-chave à medida que defeitos são progressivamente criados, a saber, a Largura a Meia Altura (FWHM) dos modos vibracionais de segunda ordem 2LA(K) e 2LA(M). Posteriormente, um tratamento com feixes de íons de Hélio foi aplicado, levando a resultados positivos ao controlar o tempo e a energia do tratamento. Os espectros de emissão de fotoluminescência revelam que a intensidade do sinal foi aumentada em até duas vezes. Medidas de Raman Ressonante indicaram que a criação de defeitos foi controlada (com características de segunda ordem praticamente inalteradas). A análise de AFM demonstrou que não houve mudança da escala micrométrica devido aos tratamentos. Este tratamento constitui um método fácil para aprimorar a emissão de fotoluminescência de amostras de MoS2 monocamada crescidas via CVD para futuras aplicações em dispositivos. / [en] Two-dimensional molybdenum disulfide (2D MoS2) has gained significant attention due to its unique electronic and optical properties, making it a promising material for various applications, such as optoelectronic devices and energy storage systems. This thesis investigates methods to enhance the photoluminescence (PL) emission of monolayer MoS2 through different treatments. The experiments performed aimed to achieve this by creating defects on the crystal structure in a controlled manner, attacking the 2D MoS2 with ions. The samples were obtained via Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD). The changes in morphology and electro-optical features were assessed via Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Resonant Raman Spectroscopy, and Photoluminescence (PL) Spectroscopy. The first round of experiments employed a Nitrogen Plasma treatment. AFM evidence of the integrity of the morphology is presented, although the PL signal was significantly quenched for the parameters used. Raman Spectroscopy shows an evolution of key features as defects are progressively created, namely the second-order 2LA(K) and 2LA(M) vibrational modes Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM). Afterwards, a Helium ion beam treatment was applied, yielding positive results when controlling treatment time and energy. Photoluminescence emission spectra revealed the signal intensity was enhanced by up to a factor of 2. Resonant Raman measurements indicated a controlled defect creation was achieved (with practically unchanged second-order features). AFM analysis demonstrated no change in the micrometer scale dut to the treatments. This treatment constitutes a facile method for enhancing CVD grown monolayer MoS2 samples PL emission for future device applications.

No / Alpha phase sintering, sinter hardening, and mechanical properties of prealloyed Fe-1.5Mo base powder with and without additions of elemental Si, ferrosilicon, and carbon under various process conditions have been investigated. Liquid paraffin, as a new lubricating agent, was found to be useful in reducing segregation, interparticle and die wall frictions, as well as reducing ejection forces and die and tool wear. It was found that addition of Si to the base powder enhanced the sintering process by stabilisation of the ¿-phase and formation of two kinds of liquid phase at ~1045 and ~1180°C, corresponding to the solidus and liquidus temperatures, respectively. This addition increased the tensile strength of the as sintered Fe-1.5Mo from 174 to 445 MPa owing to massive solid solution strengthening effect of Si. An optimum sinter hardenable alloy, of composition Fe-1.5Mo + 3Si + 1.2C, provided a high sintered density of 7.55 g cm-3, tensile and bend strengths of 764 and 1405 MPa, respectively, with 2.5% elongation, after sintering at 1250°C for 1 h under hydrogen or vacuum using moderate cooling rates of ¿ 20 K min-1. Faster cooling rates caused brittleness and very low UTS for the high carbon steel. Full heat treatment improved the UTS by 200 MPa which was useful only for the high carbon steel with high cooling rates ¿ 30 K min-1. Depending on the cooling rate, the as sintered microstructures consisted of mainly fine or coarse pearlite, bainite, martensite, and some retained austenite with hardness in the range 250-720 HV10. Some proeutectoid grain boundary cementites were also present in the as sintered high carbon steel. This work, therefore, has shown that high densities with acceptable microstructures and good mechanical properties are achievable with single stage compaction and single sintering operations by using the optimum process conditions and alloying composition without the need for a post-sintering heat treatment.

[ES] Uno de los retos más importantes de la sociedad actual es la obtención de energía de forma sostenible, limpia y eficiente. Por ello, gran parte de la investigación actual en el campo de la química y la ciencia de los materiales centra sus esfuerzos en la búsqueda y estudio de nuevas generaciones de materiales que permitan una transición energética desde el modelo energético tradicional hacia un modelo más sostenible. En este contexto, las propiedades eléctricas de los materiales, relacionadas con la generación y transformación de energía, juegan un papel esencial. En esta tesis se estudian dos tipos de materiales híbridos con distinta estructura y composición, pero que combinan excelentes propiedades eléctricas y ópticas. Por una parte, los clústeres octaédricos de molibdeno, ya conocidos desde hace décadas, han demostrado ser excelentes materiales en catálisis. En los últimos tiempos, la investigación alrededor de este material se ha centrado en el estudio de sus propiedades ópticas y electrónicas y sus aplicaciones en sensores y dispositivos emisores de luz. Por otra parte, las perovskitas híbridas halogenadas son ampliamente conocidas en el campo de la generación energética por sus elevadas eficiencias, movilidad de cargas y alta eficiencia de emisión de luz. Se han estudiado dos estructuras de perovskita híbrida halogenada: una 3D, cuyas propiedades son ampliamente conocidas, y otra con estructura multidimensional 2D-3D, donde el carácter laminar le confiere una mejora en la estabilidad. Con el propósito de comprender mejor su interacción luz-materia, en los trabajos desarrollados en la presente tesis, se han realizado mediciones optoelectrónicas a nivel monocristalino. Esto incluye un análisis combinando de medidas de emisión, fotocolección y transporte de carga. Además, se ha investigado su comportamiento como cavidad resonante, así como sus propiedades como generador de energía. Por lo tanto, se ha corroborado que los materiales objeto de estudio, presentan unas propiedades que les confieren diferentes posibilidades de aplicación en diversos ámbitos dentro del campo de la generación energética. / [CA] Un dels reptes més importants de la societat actual és obtenir energia de forma sostenible, neta i eficient. Per això, gran part de la investigació actual en el camp de la química i la ciència dels materials centra els seus esforços en la cerca i l'estudi de noves generacions de materials que permeten una transició energètica des del model energètic tradicional cap a un model més sostenible. En aquest context, les propietats elèctriques dels materials, relacionades amb la generació i la transformació d'energia juguen un paper essencial. En aquesta tesi s'estudien dos tipus de materials híbrids amb diferent estructura i composició, però que combinen propietats elèctriques i òptiques excel·lents. D'una banda, els clústers octaèdrics de molibdè, ja coneguts des de fa dècades, han demostrat ser materials idonis en catàlisi. De fet, en els darrers temps, la recerca al voltant d'aquest material s'ha centrat en l'estudi de les propietats òptiques i electròniques i les aplicacions en sensors i dispositius emissors de llum. D'altra banda, les perovskites híbrides halogenades són àmpliament conegudes al camp de la generació energètica per les seues elevades eficiències, mobilitat de càrregues i alta eficiència d'emissió de llum. S'han estudiat dues estructures de perovskita híbrida halogenada: una de 3D, les propietats de la qual són àmpliament conegudes, i una altra amb estructura multidimensional 2D-3D, el caràcter laminar de la qual li confereix una millora en l'estabilitat. Amb el propòsit de comprendre millor la seua interacció llum-matèria, en els treballs desenvolupats en aquesta tesi, s'han realitzat mesuraments optoelectrònics a nivell monocristal·lí. Això inclou una anàlisi que combina mesures d'emissió, fotocol·lecció i transport de càrrega. A més, s'ha investigat el seu comportament com a cavitat ressonant, així com les seues propietats com a generador d'energia. Per tant, s'ha corroborat que els materials objecte d'estudi presenten unes propietats que els confereixen diferents possibilitats d'aplicació en diversos àmbits dins del camp de la generació energètica. / [EN] One of the most important challenges of today's society is obtaining energy in a sustainable, clean, and efficient way. For this reason, much of the current research in the field of chemistry and materials science focuses its efforts on the search and study of new generations of materials that allow an energy transition from the traditional energy model to a more sustainable model. In this context, the electrical properties of materials, related to the generation and transformation of energy, play an essential role. In this thesis, two types of hybrid materials with different structure and composition, but which combine excellent electrical and optical properties, are studied. On the one hand, octahedral molybdenum clusters have been known for decades and have proven to be excellent materials in catalysis. In fact, in recent times, research around this material has focused on the study of its optical and electronic properties and its applications in sensors and light-emitting devices. On the other hand, halogenated hybrid perovskites are widely known in the field of energy generation for their high efficiencies, charge mobility and high light emission efficiency. Two halogenated hybrid perovskite structures were studied: one 3D, whose properties are widely known, and another with a 2D-3D multidimensional structure, where the laminar character confers an improvement in stability. To better understand its light-matter interaction, in the work developed in this thesis, optoelectronic measurements have been carried out at the monocrystalline level. This includes a combined analysis of emission, photocollection and charge transport measurements. In addition, its behavior as a resonant cavity has been investigated, as well as its properties as an energy generator. Therefore, it has been confirmed that the materials under study have properties that give them different application possibilities in various areas within the field of energy generation. / Segura Sanchis, E. (2024). Propiedades ópticas y eléctricas de monocristales de materiales híbridos [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/202755

The exploitation of the soft x-ray/extreme ultra-violet (EUV) region of the electromagnetic spectrum is possible mainly due to the development of multilayer (ML) mirrors. This region of the electromagnetic spectrum offers great opportunities in both science and technology. The shorter wavelength allows one to see smaller features in microscopy and write finer features in lithography. High reflectivity with moderate spectral bandwidth at normal/near-normal incidence can be achieved in soft x-ray/ EUV spectral range using these ML mirrors, where natural crystals with the required large periodicity are not available. These MLs are generally artificial Bragg’s reflectors, which consist of alternative high and low density materials with periodicity in the nanometer range. The main advantages of ML optics stem from the tunability of layer thickness, composition, lateral gradient, and the gradient along the normal to the substrate; these can be tailored according to the desired wavelength regime. They have the great advantage of being adaptable to figured surfaces, enabling their use as reflective optics in these spectral regions, for focusing and imaging applications. Broadband reflectivity and wavelength tunability are also possible by using MLs with normal and lateral gradient, respectively. However, fabrication of these ML mirrors requires the capability to deposit uniform, ultra-thin (a few angstroms-thick) films of different materials with thickness control on the atomic scale. Thus, one requires a proper understanding of substrate surfaces, individual layers, chemical reactivity at interfaces and, finally, of the ML structures required for particular applications. The performance of these MLs is limited by (the lack of) contrast in optical constants of the two materials, interfacial roughness, the chemical reactivity of two materials and, finally, errors in the thickness of individual layers. Soft x-ray/extreme ultra-violet ML mirrors have found a wide range of applications in synchrotron radiation beam lines, materials science, astronomy, x-ray microscopy, x-ray laser, x-ray lithography, polarizers, and plasma diagnostics. The Indus–1 synchrotron radiation (SR) source is an operational 450 MeV machine, which produces radiation up to soft x-rays. Indus-2 is a 2.5 GeV machine, which has been commissioned recently to produce hard x-rays (E > 25 keV). The combination of Indus-1 and Indus-2 will cover a broad energy spectrum from IR to hard x-rays. Therefore, there is a significant need and opportunity to study MLs of different pairs of materials, with different parameters such as periodicity and optimum thickness of individual layers. The goal of the present thesis is to fabricate MLs for soft x-ray optics and to study their physics for application as polarizers in the wavelength range from 67 Å to 160 Å on the Indus-1 synchrotron source. To accomplish this task, a UHV electron beam evaporation system has been developed indigenously for the fabrication of MLs. Three different ML systems viz., Mo/Si, Fe/B4C and Mo/Y have been fabricated, and their surfaces and interfaces were investigated thoroughly for the polarizer application. X-ray reflectivity (XRR) has been used extensively in the investigations of these MLs. This is because XRR is a highly sensitive non-destructive technique for the characterization of buried interfaces, and gives microscopic information (at atomic resolution) over a macroscopic length scale (a few microns). Numerical analysis of XRR data has been carried out using computer programs. Depth-graded x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) has been used for compositional analysis at interfaces for some of the ML structures, as a technique complementary to XRR. The performance of some of these MLs has been tested in the soft x-ray region, using the Indus-1 synchrotron radiation (SR) source. Prior to studying the MLs, a detailed study of the surfaces and interfaces of thin films, bi-layers, and tri-layers was carried out using XRR and the glancing incidence fluorescence technique. The discontinuous-to-continuous transition and the mode of film growth, which are vital to the optimization of layer thickness (basically for the high-atomic number or high-Z layer) in the ML structures, were also investigated using in situ sheet resistance measurement method. Indus-1 is a soft x-ray SR source that covers atomic absorption edges of many low-Z materials. The present work demonstrates the possibilities of characterizing low-Z thin films and multilayers using soft x-ray resonant reflectivity. In one case, we have shown for first time that soft x-ray resonant reflectivity can be employed as a non-destructive technique for the determination of interlayer composition. In a second study using the Indus-1 SR source, we have shown, by observing the effect of the anomalous optical constant on reflectivity pattern when photon energy is tuned across the atomic absorption edge of the constituent low-Z element, that soft x-ray resonant reflectivity is an element-specific technique. This thesis is organized into 7 chapters. A brief summary of individual chapters is presented below. Chapter 1 gives a brief general introduction to x-ray ML optics. This is followed by a discussion of the importance of the soft x-ray region of electromagnetic radiation. The optical properties of x-rays are reviewed and optical constants are calculated for some of the important materials used for x-ray MLs. The refractive index in the x-ray region being less than unity (except absorption edges), the consequent limitation of conventional transmission lenses is discussed. The limitation of glancing angle incidence optics is presented, motivating the need for ML optics, which is discussed along with a theoretically calculated reflectivity profile. The procedure for materials for the MLs for application in different spectral regions is discussed, along with a survey of literature related to the present thesis. The importance of the quality of surfaces and interfaces on the performance of ML structures has been shown through simulations. The applications of soft x-ray MLs are discussed with emphasis on polarization. This is followed by a review of different modes of growth of thin films. Finally, the scope of the present work is highlighted. Chapter 2 provides brief descriptions of the experimental techniques used in the present investigations and of the numerical methods employed for quantitative data analysis. The XRR technique is discussed elaborately because it has been used extensively. Detailed calculations of x-ray reflectivity from single surfaces, thin films and bi-layers are presented, along with simulated values. The effect of critical angle and Brewster’s angle is also discussed. Data analysis methods for computing x-ray reflectivity from multilayer structures, based on dynamical and kinematical models, have been discussed. The effect of roughness on XRR has been discussed based on the recursion formalism of dynamical theory. Simulations of XRR and experimental XRR data fitting are carried out using computer programs. The XRR experimental set up is also outlined. A theoretical background is given for the electrical measurements on thin films. This is followed by a brief overview of x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and interpretation of spectra. Finally, the glancing incidence x-ray fluorescence (GIXRF) technique is outlined. Chapter 3 describes in detail the ultra-high vacuum electron beam evaporation system developed in house especially for the fabrication of thin films and x-ray multilayer optics. At the outset, a brief overview of different deposition techniques commonly used for the fabrication of x-ray optical elements is presented. Design, fabrication, and assembly of different accessories are discussed. The control of thickness and uniformity of the films deposited has been checked through the experiments, whose results are provided. The results obtained for ML test structures are presented to show the capability of system in carrying out fabrication of high quality x-ray ML structures. Finally, the versatility of evaporation system incorporating in situ characterization facilities such as -situ electrical measurements for different substrate temperatures is illustrated. Chapter 4 presents a study of the growth of ultra-thin Mo films at different substrate temperatures using in situ sheet resistance measurements. First, a theoretical background is given on the different stages of island growth and on factors affecting thin film growth, followed by a discussion of the possible electrical conduction phenomena in continuous and discontinuous metal films. The nature of thin film growth and a detailed microscopic picture at different growth stages are derived from a modeling of sheet resistance data obtained in situ. The various conduction mechanisms have been identified in different stages of growth. In the island growth stage, the isotropic and anisotropic growth of Mo islands is identified from the model. In the insulator-metal transition region, experimentally determined values of critical exponent of conductivity agrees well with theoretically predicted values for a two-dimensional (2D) percolating system, revealing that Mo films on float glass substrate is predominantly a 2D structure. The minimum thickness for which Mo films becomes continuous is obtained as 1.8 nm and 2.2 nm for Mo deposited at substrate temperatures 300 K and 100 K, respectively. An amorphous-to- crystalline transition is also observed, and discussed. Chapter 5 covers the detailed study of the surfaces and interfaces studies in three different ML structures viz., Mo/Si, Fe/B4C and Mo/Y, meant for the polarizer application in the wavelength range of 67 Å to 160 Å. Multilayers with varying periodicity, varying number of layer pairs, and different ratios of high-Z layer thickness to the period, were fabricated using the electron beam system. Initially, a brief overview of the design aspects of ML structures is given, along with the theoretically calculated reflectivity at Brewster’s angle from the best material combinations. In Mo/Si MLs, the interlayer formed at the interfaces due to interdiffusion of the two elements is asymmetric in thickness, i.e., Mo-on-Si interlayer is thicker than the Si-on-Mo interlayer. To take account of these interlayers in XRR data fitting, a four layer model is considered. The effect of interlayers on reflectivity pattern was studied using simulations, and differences with respect to roughness are also discussed. The mechanism of formation of asymmetric interlayers is also discussed. The interlayer composition has determined using depth-graded XPS. The results reveal the formation of the MoSi2 composition at both the interfaces. The experimental results agree well with theoretical calculations based on solid-state amorphization reaction, which is a result of large heat of mixing. The effective heat of formation model reveals the formation of MoSi2 as the first phase. The soft x-ray reflectivity performance of the Mo/Si ML structure at Brewster’s angle is tested using Indus-1 synchrotron radiation (SR). Using XRR and GIXFR, a study of the surfaces and interfaces of bilayers of B4C-on-Fe and Fe-on- B4C, and tri-layers of Fe-B4C-Fe was carried out, with a systematic variation of Fe and B4C layer thicknesses. A sharp interface was observed in Fe-on-B4C, whereas a low density (w.r.t. Fe) interlayer is observed at the B4C-on-Fe interface. The interlayer properties fluctuates w.r.t. the bottom Fe layer thickness and is independent of the top B4C layer thickness. The nature of fluctuations has been discussed in detail. A study of the surfaces and interfaces of Fe/B4C MLs is described. Finally, a study of the surfaces and interfaces of bilayers, tri-layers, and MLs of the Mo/Y system is discussed in detail. Chapter 6 describes the application of soft x-ray resonant reflectivity for the characterization of low-Z thin films and interfaces in multilayer structures. Initially, a discussion of the energy dependence of atomic scattering factors and hence of optical constants is provided with simulations, with emphasis on the atomic absorption edge. Then, a brief overview of synchrotron radiation, with particular emphasis on the parameters of the Indus-1 synchrotron source is given. The possibilities of determining the composition of the buried interlayer with sub-nanometer scale sensitivity using soft x-ray resonant reflectivity are discussed. The methodology has been applied to study the Mo/Si interface both by simulations and by experiments on the Indus-1 SR, by tuning the photon energy to the Si L-absorption edge. Finally, direct evidence of elemental specificity of soft x-ray resonant reflectivity through the observation of the effect of anomalous optical constants on the reflectivity pattern is discussed. We demonstrate the method through simulations and experiments on the B4C material in B4C thin films and Fe/ B4C bi-layers, using Indus-1 SR tuned to the boron Kedge. Chapter 7 summarizes the main findings of the present work, and provides an outlook for further investigations in the field.

Inspired by graphene, I investigate the properties of several different real and artificial Dirac materials. Firstly, I consider a two-dimensional honeycomb lattice of metallic nanoparticles, each supporting localised surface plasmons, and study the quantum properties of the collective plasmons resulting from the near field dipolar interaction between the nanoparticles. I analytically investigate the dispersion, the effective Hamiltonian and the eigenstates of the collective plasmons for an arbitrary orientation of the individual dipole moments. When the polarisation points close to normal to the plane the spectrum presents Dirac cones, similar to those present in the electronic band structure of graphene. I derive the effective Dirac Hamiltonian for the collective plasmons and show that the corresponding spinor eigenstates represent chiral Dirac-like massless bosonic excitations that present similar effects to those of electrons in graphene, such as a non-trivial Berry phase and the absence of backscattering from smooth inhomogeneities. I further discuss how one can manipulate the Dirac points in the Brillouin zone and open a gap in the collective plasmon dispersion by modifying the polarisation of the localized surface plasmons, paving the way for a fully tunable plasmonic analogue of graphene. I present a phase diagram of gapless and gapped phases in the collective plasmon dispersion depending on the dipole orientation. When the inversion symmetry of the honeycomb structure is broken, the collective plasmons become gapped chiral Dirac modes with an energy-dependent Berry phase. I show that this concept can be generalised to describe many real and artificial graphene-like systems, labeling them Dirac materials with a linear gapped spectrum. I also show that biased bilayer graphene is another Dirac material with an energy dependent Berry phase, but with a parabolic gapped spectrum. I analyse the relativistic phenomenon of Klein Tunneling in both types of system. The Klein paradox is one of the most counter-intuitive results from quantum electrodynamics but it has been seen experimentally to occur in both monolayer and bilayer graphene, due to the chiral nature of the Dirac quasiparticles in these materials. The non-trivial Berry phase of pi in monolayer graphene leads to remarkable effects in transmission through potential barriers, whereas there is always zero transmission at normal incidence in unbiased bilayer graphene in the npn regime. These, and many other 2D materials have attracted attention due to their possible usefulness for the next generation of nano-electronic devices, but some of their Klein tunneling results may be a hindrance to this application. I will highlight how breaking the inversion symmetry of the system allows for results that are not possible in these system's inversion symmetrical counterparts.

Cette thèse expérimentale est consacrée à l’optimisation d’une source de rayons X Kalpha générée par interaction laser femtoseconde à fort contraste temporel avec une cible épaisse en molybdène. Ce travail vise à explorer l’effet du contraste temporel sur l’émission Kalpha sur une gamme d’intensité combinant les deux régimes relativiste et non-relativiste. La première étude est consacrée à l’évolution de l’émission Kalpha en fonction du contraste temporel et de l’intensité. L’étude a révélé différents comportements de l’émission Kalpha suivant la valeur du contraste et d’intensité. L’étude a aussi montré une émission Kalpha indépendante du contraste dans le régime relativiste. Au regard des travaux de la littérature, nous avons proposé une première interprétation des résultats obtenus. Il s’agit d’établir un lien entre l’émission Kalpha et les mécanismes d’absorption de l’énergie laser. Certains mécanismes sont dépendants de l’angle d’incidence. Afin d’appuyer notre interprétation, une deuxième étude du rendement de la source Kalpha en fonction de l’angle d’incidence a été réalisée. Ainsi les résultats obtenus sont en accord avec certaines de nos conclusions. En outre, Nous nous sommes intéressés à l’effet de l’étirement temporel de l’impulsion. Nous avons observé une sensibilité de l’émission suivant le signe du chirp. Enfin, nous avons étudié l’effet du contraste et de l’intensité sur la taille de la source X. Celle-ci est d’autant plus réduite que le contraste est plus fort et devient très proche de la tache focale laser à faible intensité laser. Le rendement de production en photon Kalpha atteint est de 2 × 10^−4, similaire au meilleur rendement reporté à ce jour. / This thesis is focused on the optimization of a Kalpha x-ray source induced by high contrast femtosecond laser molybdenum thick target interaction. The objective of this work is to explore the effect of the temporal contrast ratio on Kalpha emission in an intensity range including the non relativistic and relativistic regimes. The first study consists of the measurement of Kalpha emission as a function of contrast ratio and intensity. The study shows different behaviors of the emission depending on the contrast ratio and intensity range. Furthermore, it was found that in the relativistic regime Kalpha production is independant of the contrast ratio. According to published work in litterature, we proposed a first intepretation of the obtained results. In particular, we discuss the absorption mechanism of laser pulse energy for each contrast ratio and intensity condition. Some of the mechanisms are dependant on the angle of incidence of the pulse on target. Thus, to verify the validity of our interpretation, we study the Kalpha effciency as a function of the angle of incidence. Most of the results agree with our first conclusions. Furthermore, we investigate the effect of the chirped pulse of the Kalpha emission. It is shown that Kalpha emission is sensitive to the sign of the chirp. Finally, we performed a study on the effect of contrast ratio and intensity on the x-ray source size. It was observed that high contrast ratio decreases strongly the x-ray source size which aproaches the focal spot size at low laser intensity. High Kalpha efficiency is reached 2 × 10^−4 which is similar to the highest effciency reported to date in litterature for a thick molybdenum target.

As mudanças microestruturais, causadas pela adição de elementos de liga e pelos tratamentos térmicos, modificam as propriedades mecânicas e tribológicas dos materiais. Foi desenvolvido então um estudo em amostras de um ferro fundido branco de alto cromo com molidbênio e nióbio, procurando determinar os efeitos dos elementos de liga molibdênio e nióbio, na microestrutura deste material, através de medidas de dureza, dilatometria, ataque químico, microscopia eletrônica de varredura e,principalmente, a utilização de metalografia em altas temperaturas. A técnica de metalografia em altas temperaturas permite o estudo das mudanças microestruturais durante os ciclos térmicos, que foram programados, tendo como referência a curva TTT previamente traçada para este material, focalizando regiões onde não ocorrem mudanças de fase. Deste modo foram obtidas as aparências metalográficas em altas temperaturas e feito um estudo comparativo com as outras técnicas usadas. Com isto é possível melhorar o conhecimento sobre a microestrutura do material em questão e obter ligas com propriedades pré-determinadas. / The microstructural changes caused by the addition of alloying elements and by thermal treatments modify the mechanical and tribological properties of the materials. A study was develop on samples of molybdenum and niobium high chromium white cast iron, trying to determine the effects of molybdenum and niobium alloys elements on microstructure of this material through hardness measurements, dilatometry, chemical etching, scanning electron microscopy, and mainly, utilizing metallography at high temperatures. The metallography at high temperatures technic allows the study of microstructural changes during the thermal cyc1es, which were scheduled, having as reference the TTT curve previously traced to this material, focusing regions where changes of fase don\'t occur. So the metallographic appearances at high temperatures were obtained and it was done a comparative study using other technics. Because of that is possible to improve the knowledge of the material microstructure, which it has been studied, and to obtain alloys with predetermined properties.

O uso do peróxido de hidrogênio eletrogerado in situ em Processos Oxidativos Avançados (POAs) é um promissor método para o tratamento de efluentes orgânicos. Neste contexto, o desenvolvimento de materiais mais eficientes para viabilizar a reação de redução do oxigênio (RRO) pelo mecanismo envolvendo a transferência de dois elétrons ainda é de grande importância. O presente estudo objetiva a obtenção e a avaliação da atividade catalítica de nanopartículas de óxidos metálicos, Ta2O5, MoO3, Nb2O5 ou ZrO2, incorporadas em carbono Printex 6L e em grafeno no estudo da redução do oxigênio visando a eletrogeração de peróxido de hidrogênio. A caracterização morfológica e microestrutural desses materiais foi investigada por difração de raios X, microscopia eletrônica de transmissão e espectroscopia de fotoelétrons excitados por raios X. O mecanismo da RRO foi analisado pela técnica do eletrodo de disco-anel rotatório. O carbono Printex 6L apresentou uma eficiência de corrente para a eletrogeração de H2O2 (I(H2O2)%) igual a 65,3% em K2SO4 0,1 mol L-1 (pH =2). Após o tratamento térmico desse substrato pelo método dos precursores poliméricos, a eficiência de corrente aumentou 17,1%, ou seja, I(H2O2)% igual a 76,5%. A modificação do carbono Printex 6L com nanopartículas cristalinas de Ta2O5, MoO3, Nb2O5 ou ZrO2 deslocou o potencial de meia-onda para a RRO para valores menos negativos e aumentou a I(H2O2)%. O Nb2O5/C apresentou a maior I(H2O2)%, 87,1%, enquanto o ZrO2/C deslocou o potencial em 137 mV. O estudo comparativo entre três substratos de carbono para a redução do oxigênio, revelou que o óxido de grafeno reduzido apresentou maior atividade para a RRO comparado ao óxido de grafeno e ao carbono Printex 6L, tanto em eletrólito ácido quanto em eletrólito alcalino. A modificação do rGO com Nb2O5 ou ZrO2 pelo método hidrotermal aumentou a atividade catalítica desse substrato para a RRO. A maior eletrogeração de H2O2 foi observada na presença do ZrO2. De fato, um aumento de 73,7% para 88,5% em K2SO4 0,1 mol L-1 (pH =2), e de 72,9% para 83,1% em NaOH 0,1 mol L-1, foi observado em rGO e ZrO2-rGO, respectivamente. Além disso, o ZrO2-rGO apresentou menor sobrepotencial para a RRO comparado ao rGO sem modificador. Portanto, a presença das nanopartículas de óxidos metálicos na matriz condutora de carbono amorfo intensificou a atividade catalítica para a eletrogeração do H2O2, tanto em carbono Printex 6L quanto em óxido de grafeno reduzido, indicando o efeito sinérgico entre as nanopartículas e o subtrato de carbono. Consequentemente, os catalisadores avaliados neste trabalho são promissores para a eletrogeração de espécies oxidantes in situ e sua aplicaçao em POAs. / In situ electrogeneration of hydrogen peroxide has been greatly application in Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) as an effective water treatment technology. In this context, the development of electrode materials that enable the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) mechanism through a two-electron pathway with high selectivity at low overpotential has a pronounced importance. In the present study, we investigate the properties of Ta2O5, MoO3, Nb2O5 or ZrO2 nanoparticles supported on Printex 6L carbon and reduced graphene oxide for the electrocatalysis of oxygen reduction to H2O2. The structures and morphologies of these materials were characterized by X-ray diffraction analysis, transmission electron microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Electrochemical activities toward the ORR were evaluated using a rotating ring-disk electrode system. Printex 6L carbon showed a current efficiency for H2O2 production (I(H2O2)%) of 65.3% in K2SO4 0.1 mol L-1 (pH =2) whereas the carbon heat-treated by the polymeric precursor method displayed 76.5% yield of H2O2 electrogeneration. Carbon Printex 6L modified with Ta2O5, MoO3, Nb2O5 or ZrO2 nanoparticles shifted the half-wave potential for the ORR to less negative potential and increased the I(H2O2)%. The Nb2O5/C showed the highest I(H2O2)%, 87,1%, and the ZrO2/C shifted the potential 137 mV. The comparative study of ORR in acid and alkaline media for the three different conductive carbon pigment showed that the reduced graphene oxide displayed higher activity to oxygen reduction than graphene oxide and Printex 6L carbon. Reduced graphene oxide modified with Nb2O5 or ZrO2 nanoparticles by hydrothermal method increased the catalytic activity of this substrate for ORR which the highest H2O2 electrogeneration was observed for ZrO2-rGO. Indeed, an increase from 73.7% to 88.5% in K2SO4 0.1 mol L-1 (pH =2) and from 72.9% to 83.1% in NaOH 0.1 mol L-1 was obtained for rGO and ZrO2-rGO, respectively. Additionally, the ZrO2-rGO electrocatalyst exhibited overpotential lower than that of rGO unmodified. Therefore, the metallic oxides nanoparticles in both carbon Printex 6L and reduced graphene oxide enhanced the catalytic activity for H2O2 electrogeneration indicating the synergistic effect between the nanoparticles and the amorphous carbon. The catalysts evaluated in this study are promising for in situ electrogeneration of oxidizing agents to be used in the degradation of organic pollutants.