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The scaling of MOS transistors into the nanometer regime opens the possibility for creating large Network-on-Chip (NoC) architectures containing hundreds of integrated processing elements with on-chip communication. NoC architectures, with structured on-chip networks are emerging as a scalable and modular solution to global communications within large systems-on-chip. NoCs mitigate the emerging wire-delay problem and addresses the need for substantial interconnect bandwidth by replacing today’s shared buses with packet-switched router networks. With on-chip communication consuming a significant portion of the chip power and area budgets, there is a compelling need for compact, low power routers. While applications dictate the choice of the compute core, the advent of multimedia applications, such as three-dimensional (3D) graphics and signal processing, places stronger demands for self-contained, low-latency floating-point processors with increased throughput. This work demonstrates that a computational fabric built using optimized building blocks can provide high levels of performance in an energy efficient manner. The thesis details an integrated 80- Tile NoC architecture implemented in a 65-nm process technology. The prototype is designed to deliver over 1.0TFLOPS of performance while dissipating less than 100W. This thesis first presents a six-port four-lane 57 GB/s non-blocking router core based on wormhole switching. The router features double-pumped crossbar channels and destinationaware channel drivers that dynamically configure based on the current packet destination. This enables 45% reduction in crossbar channel area, 23% overall router area, up to 3.8X reduction in peak channel power, and 7.2% improvement in average channel power. In a 150-nm sixmetal CMOS process, the 12.2 mm2 router contains 1.9-million transistors and operates at 1 GHz at 1.2 V supply. We next describe a new pipelined single-precision floating-point multiply accumulator core (FPMAC) featuring a single-cycle accumulation loop using base 32 and internal carry-save arithmetic, with delayed addition techniques. A combination of algorithmic, logic and circuit techniques enable multiply-accumulate operations at speeds exceeding 3GHz, with singlecycle throughput. This approach reduces the latency of dependent FPMAC instructions and enables a sustained multiply-add result (2FLOPS) every cycle. The optimizations allow removal of the costly normalization step from the critical accumulation loop and conditionally powered down using dynamic sleep transistors on long accumulate operations, saving active and leakage power. In a 90-nm seven-metal dual-VT CMOS process, the 2 mm2 custom design contains 230-K transistors. Silicon achieves 6.2-GFLOPS of performance while dissipating 1.2 W at 3.1 GHz, 1.3 V supply. We finally present the industry's first single-chip programmable teraFLOPS processor. The NoC architecture contains 80 tiles arranged as an 8×10 2D array of floating-point cores and packet-switched routers, both designed to operate at 4 GHz. Each tile has two pipelined singleprecision FPMAC units which feature a single-cycle accumulation loop for high throughput. The five-port router combines 100 GB/s of raw bandwidth with low fall-through latency under 1ns. The on-chip 2D mesh network provides a bisection bandwidth of 2 Tera-bits/s. The 15-FO4 design employs mesochronous clocking, fine-grained clock gating, dynamic sleep transistors, and body-bias techniques. In a 65-nm eight-metal CMOS process, the 275 mm2 custom design contains 100-M transistors. The fully functional first silicon achieves over 1.0TFLOPS of performance on a range of benchmarks while dissipating 97 W at 4.27 GHz and 1.07-V supply. It is clear that realization of successful NoC designs require well balanced decisions at all levels: architecture, logic, circuit and physical design. Our results demonstrate that the NoC architecture successfully delivers on its promise of greater integration, high performance, good scalability and high energy efficiency.

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In dieser Arbeit werden Speichertransistoren mit Oxid-Nitrid-Oxid-Speicherschicht und lokaler Ladungsspeicherung untersucht, die zur nichtflüchtigen Speicherung von Informationen genutzt werden. Charakteristisch für diese Transistoren ist, dass an beiden Enden des Transistorkanals innerhalb der Isolationsschicht Informationen in Form von Ladungspaketen unabhängig und getrennt voneinander gespeichert werden. Für das Auslesen, Programmieren und Löschen der Speichertransistoren werden die physikalischen Hintergründe diskutiert und grundlegende Algorithmen zur Implementierung dieser Operationen auf einer typischen Speicherfeldarchitektur aufgezeigt. Für Standard-MOS-Transistoren wird ein Kurzkanal-Schwellspannungsmodell abgeleitet und analytisch gelöst. Anhand dieser Modellgleichung werden die bekannten Kurzkanaleffekte betrachtet. Weiterhin wird ein Modell zur Berechnung des Drainstroms von Kurzkanaltransistoren im Subthreshold-Arbeitsbereich abgeleitet und gezeigt, dass sich die Drain-Source-Leckströme bei Kurzkanaltransistoren vergrößern. Die Erweiterung des Schwellspannungsmodells für Standard-MOS-Transistoren auf den Fall der lokalen Ladungsspeicherung innerhalb der Isolationsschicht erlaubt die Ableitung eines Schwellspannungsmodells für Oxid-Nitrid-Oxid-Transistoren mit lokaler Ladungsspeicherung. Dieses Modell gestattet die qualitative und quantitative Diskussion der Erhöhung der Schwellspannung durch die lokale Injektion von Ladungsträgern beim Programmiervorgang. Weiterhin ist es mit diesem Modell möglich, die Trennung der an beiden Kanalenden des Transistors gespeicherten Informationen beim Auslesevorgang qualitativ zu erklären und diese Bittrennung in Abhängigkeit von der Drainspannung zu berechnen. Für Langkanalspeichertransistoren wird eine analytische Näherungslösung des Schwellspannungsmodells angegeben, während das Kurzkanalverhalten durch die numerische Lösung der Modellgleichung bestimmt werden kann. Für Langkanalspeichertransistoren wird ein Subthreshold-Modell zur Berechnung des Drainstroms abgeleitet. Dieses Modell zeigt, dass sich die Leckströme von programmierten Speichertransistoren im Vergleich zu Standard-MOS-Transistoren gleicher Schwellspannung vergrößern. Die Ursache dieses Effekts, die Verringerung der Subthreshold-Steigung von Transistoren im programmierten Zustand, wird analysiert. Für einige praktische Beispiele wird die Anwendung der hergeleiteten Modellgleichungen beim Entwurf von Flash-Speichern demonstriert. / In this work, memory transistors with an oxide-nitride-oxide trapping-layer and local charge storage, which are used for non-volatile information storage, are examined. Characteristic for these transistors is an independent and separated storage of information by charge packages, located at both sides of the transistor channel, in the insulation layer. The physical backgrounds for reading, programming and erasing the memory transistors are discussed, and basic algorithms are shown for implementing these operations on a typical memory array architecture. For standard MOS-transistors a short channel threshold model is derived and solved analytically. By using these model equations, the known short channel effects are considered. Further, a model for calculating the drain current of short channel transistors in the subthreshold operation region is derived. This model is used to show the increase of drain-source leakage currents in short channel transistors. By extending the standard MOS-transistor threshold voltage model for local charge storage in the insulation layers, the derivation of a threshold voltage model for oxide-nitride-oxide transistors with local charge storage is enabled. This model permits the quantitative and qualitative discussion of the increase in threshold voltage caused by local injection of charges during programming. Furthermore, with this model, the separation of the information, which are stored at both sides of the transistor channel, in the read-out operation is explained qualitatively, and the bit separation is calculated dependent on the drain voltage. For long channel memory transistors an analytical approximation of the threshold voltage model is given, whereas the short channel behaviour can be determined by solving the model equation numerically. For long channel memory transistors, a subthreshold model for calculating the drain current is derived. This model shows the increase in leakage current of programmed memory transistors in comparision to standard MOS-transistors. The root cause of this effect, the reduced subthreshold swing of transistors in the programmed state, is analysed. The application of the derived model equations for the development of flash memories is demonstrated with some practical examples.

De nos jours, l'industrie de la microélectronique développe des nouvelles technologies qui permettent l'obtention d'applications du quotidien alliant rapidité, basse consommation et hautes performances. Pour cela, le transistor, composant actif élémentaire et indispensable de l'électronique, voit ses dimensions miniaturisées à un rythme effréné suivant la loi de Moore de 1965. Cette réduction de dimensions permet l'implémentation de plusieurs milliards de transistors sur des surfaces de quelques millimètres carrés augmentant ainsi la densité d'intégration. Ceci conduit à une production à des coûts de fabrication constants et offre des possibilités d'achats de produits performants à un grand nombre de consommateurs. Le MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor), transistor à effet de champ, aussi appelé MOS, représente le transistor le plus utilisé dans les différents circuits issus des industries de la microélectronique. Ce transistor possède des longueurs électriques de 14 nm pour les technologies industrialisables les plus avancées et permet une densité intégration maximale spécialement pour les circuits numériques tels que les microprocesseurs. Le transistor bipolaire, dédié aux applications analogiques, fut inventé avant le transistor MOS. Cependant, son développement correspond à des noeuds technologiques de génération inférieure par rapport à celle des transistors MOS. En effet, les dimensions caractéristiques des noeuds technologiques les plus avancés pour les technologies BiCMOS sont de 55 nm. Ce type de transistor permet la mise en oeuvre de circuits nécessitant de très hautes fréquences d'opération, principalement dans le secteur des télécommunications, tels que les radars anticollisions automobiles fonctionnant à 77 GHz. Chacun de ces types de transistors possède ses propres avantages et inconvénients. Les avantages du transistor MOS reposent principalement en deux points qui sont sa capacité d'intégration et sa faible consommation lorsqu'il est utilisé pour réaliser des circuits logiques. Sachant que ces deux types de transistors sont, de nos jours, comparables du point de vue miniaturisation, les avantages offerts par le transistor bipolaire diffèrent de ceux du transistor MOS. En effet, le transistor bipolaire supporte des niveaux de courants plus élevés que celui d'un transistor MOS ce qui lui confère une meilleure capacité d'amplification de puissance. De plus, le transistor bipolaire possède une meilleure tenue en tension et surtout possède des niveaux de bruit électronique beaucoup plus faibles que ceux des transistors MOS. Ces différences notables entre les deux types de transistors guideront le choix des concepteurs suivant les spécifications des clients. L'étude qui suit concerne la fiabilité de ces deux types de transistors ainsi que celle de circuits pour les applications radio fréquences (RF) et aux longueurs d'ondes millimétriques (mmW) pour lesquels ils sont destinés. Il existe dans la littérature de nombreuses études de la fiabilité des transistors MOS. Concernant les transistors bipolaires peu d'études ont été réalisées. De plus peu d'études ont été menées sur l'impact de la fiabilité des transistors sur les circuits. L'objectif de ce travail est d'étudier le comportement de ces deux types de transistors mais aussi de les replacer dans le contexte de l'utilisateur en étudiant la fiabilité de quelques circuits parmi les plus usités dans les domaines hyperfréquence et millimétrique. Nous avons aussi essayé de montrer qu'il était possible de faire évoluer les règles de conception actuellement utilisées par les concepteurs tout en maintenant la fiabilité attendue par les clients. / Nowadays, the microelectronics industry develops new technologies that allow the production of applications combining high speed, low power consumption and high performance. For this, the transistor, active elementary and essential component of electronics, sees its miniaturized dimensions at a breakneck pace following Moore's Law in 1965. This size reduction allows the implementation of several billion transistors on surfaces of a few square millimeters and increasing the integration density. This leads to a production at constant costs and offers opportunities for shopping performing products at a large number of consumers. The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor), field effect transistor, also called MOS transistor is the most used in different circuits coming from the microelectronics industries. This transistor has electrical lengths of 14 nm for the industrially most advanced technology and allows a maximum integration density specifically for digital circuits such as microprocessors. Bipolar transistor, dedicated to analog applications, was invented before the MOS transistor. However, the characteristic dimensions of the most advanced technologies for BiCMOS technology nodes is 55 nm. This type of transistor enables the implementation of systems requiring very high frequency operation, mainly in the telecommunications industry , such as automotive collision avoidance radar operating at 77 GHz. Each of these transistors has its own advantages and disadvantages. The advantages of MOS transistor are mainly based on two points that are its integration capacity and its low power consumption when used to implement logic circuits. Knowing that these two types of transistors are, nowadays, comparable on the miniaturization aspect, benefits of bipolar transistor differ from those of the MOS transistor. Indeed, the bipolar transistor supports higher current levels than a MOS transistor which gives it a greater ability of power amplification. Moreover , the bipolar transistor has an improved breakdown voltage and especially features electronic noise levels much lower than those of the MOS transistors. These significant differences between the two transistors types will guide the designers choice according to the customer specifications. The following study relates the reliability of these two transistors types as well as circuits for radio frequency (RF) applications and millimeter wavelengths (mmW) for which they are intended. There are in the literature many studies of the reliability of MOS transistors. Regarding bipolar transistors few studies have been conducted. In addition few studies have been conducted on the impact of the reliability of transistors on circuits. The objective of this work is to study the behavior of these two types of transistors but also to place them in the user context by studying the reliability of some of most used circuits in the microwave and millimeter fields. We also tried to show that it was possible to change the design rules currently used by designers while maintaining the expected reliability by the counsumers.

In dieser Arbeit werden Speichertransistoren mit Oxid-Nitrid-Oxid-Speicherschicht und lokaler Ladungsspeicherung untersucht, die zur nichtflüchtigen Speicherung von Informationen genutzt werden. Charakteristisch für diese Transistoren ist, dass an beiden Enden des Transistorkanals innerhalb der Isolationsschicht Informationen in Form von Ladungspaketen unabhängig und getrennt voneinander gespeichert werden. Für das Auslesen, Programmieren und Löschen der Speichertransistoren werden die physikalischen Hintergründe diskutiert und grundlegende Algorithmen zur Implementierung dieser Operationen auf einer typischen Speicherfeldarchitektur aufgezeigt. Für Standard-MOS-Transistoren wird ein Kurzkanal-Schwellspannungsmodell abgeleitet und analytisch gelöst. Anhand dieser Modellgleichung werden die bekannten Kurzkanaleffekte betrachtet. Weiterhin wird ein Modell zur Berechnung des Drainstroms von Kurzkanaltransistoren im Subthreshold-Arbeitsbereich abgeleitet und gezeigt, dass sich die Drain-Source-Leckströme bei Kurzkanaltransistoren vergrößern. Die Erweiterung des Schwellspannungsmodells für Standard-MOS-Transistoren auf den Fall der lokalen Ladungsspeicherung innerhalb der Isolationsschicht erlaubt die Ableitung eines Schwellspannungsmodells für Oxid-Nitrid-Oxid-Transistoren mit lokaler Ladungsspeicherung. Dieses Modell gestattet die qualitative und quantitative Diskussion der Erhöhung der Schwellspannung durch die lokale Injektion von Ladungsträgern beim Programmiervorgang. Weiterhin ist es mit diesem Modell möglich, die Trennung der an beiden Kanalenden des Transistors gespeicherten Informationen beim Auslesevorgang qualitativ zu erklären und diese Bittrennung in Abhängigkeit von der Drainspannung zu berechnen. Für Langkanalspeichertransistoren wird eine analytische Näherungslösung des Schwellspannungsmodells angegeben, während das Kurzkanalverhalten durch die numerische Lösung der Modellgleichung bestimmt werden kann. Für Langkanalspeichertransistoren wird ein Subthreshold-Modell zur Berechnung des Drainstroms abgeleitet. Dieses Modell zeigt, dass sich die Leckströme von programmierten Speichertransistoren im Vergleich zu Standard-MOS-Transistoren gleicher Schwellspannung vergrößern. Die Ursache dieses Effekts, die Verringerung der Subthreshold-Steigung von Transistoren im programmierten Zustand, wird analysiert. Für einige praktische Beispiele wird die Anwendung der hergeleiteten Modellgleichungen beim Entwurf von Flash-Speichern demonstriert. / In this work, memory transistors with an oxide-nitride-oxide trapping-layer and local charge storage, which are used for non-volatile information storage, are examined. Characteristic for these transistors is an independent and separated storage of information by charge packages, located at both sides of the transistor channel, in the insulation layer. The physical backgrounds for reading, programming and erasing the memory transistors are discussed, and basic algorithms are shown for implementing these operations on a typical memory array architecture. For standard MOS-transistors a short channel threshold model is derived and solved analytically. By using these model equations, the known short channel effects are considered. Further, a model for calculating the drain current of short channel transistors in the subthreshold operation region is derived. This model is used to show the increase of drain-source leakage currents in short channel transistors. By extending the standard MOS-transistor threshold voltage model for local charge storage in the insulation layers, the derivation of a threshold voltage model for oxide-nitride-oxide transistors with local charge storage is enabled. This model permits the quantitative and qualitative discussion of the increase in threshold voltage caused by local injection of charges during programming. Furthermore, with this model, the separation of the information, which are stored at both sides of the transistor channel, in the read-out operation is explained qualitatively, and the bit separation is calculated dependent on the drain voltage. For long channel memory transistors an analytical approximation of the threshold voltage model is given, whereas the short channel behaviour can be determined by solving the model equation numerically. For long channel memory transistors, a subthreshold model for calculating the drain current is derived. This model shows the increase in leakage current of programmed memory transistors in comparision to standard MOS-transistors. The root cause of this effect, the reduced subthreshold swing of transistors in the programmed state, is analysed. The application of the derived model equations for the development of flash memories is demonstrated with some practical examples.

Ces dernières années ont vu l'émergence d'un nouveaux concept dans le domaine de la microélectronique pour répondre aux besoins grandissant en termes de performances et taille des puces et trouver une alternative au loi de Moore et de More than Moore qui atteignent leur limites. Il s'agit de l'intégration tridimensionnelle des circuits intégrés. Cette innovation de rupture repose sur l'empilement de puces aux fonctionnalités différentes et la transmission des signaux au travers des substrats de silicium via des TSV (via traversant le silicium). Très prometteurs en termes de bande passante et de puissance consommée devant les circuits 2D, les circuits intégrés 3D permettent aussi d'avoir des facteurs de forme plus agressifs. Des points clés par rapport aux applications en vogue sur le marché (téléphonie, appareils numériques) Un prototype nommé Wide I/O DRAM réalisé à ST et au Leti a démontré ses performances face à une puce classique POP (Package on Package), avec une bande passante multipliée par huit et une consommation divisée par deux. Cependant, l'intégration de plus en plus poussée, combinée à la montée en fréquence des circuits, soulève les problèmes des diaphonies entre les interconnexions TSV et les circuits intégrés, qui se manifestent par des perturbations dans le substrat. Ces TSV doivent pouvoir véhiculer des signaux agressifs sans perturber le fonctionnement de blocs logiques ou analogiques situés à proximité, sensibles aux perturbations substrat. Cette thèse a pour objectif d'évaluer ces niveaux de diaphonies sur une large gamme de fréquence (jusqu'à 40 GHz) entre le TSV et les transistors et d'apporter des solutions potentielles pour les réduire. Elle repose sur de la conception de structure de test 3D, leur caractérisation, la modélisation des mécanismes de couplage, et des simulations. / To improve performances of integrated circuits and decrease the technology cost, designers follow “Moore's law” and “Moore than Moore law”, respectively consisting in increasing the transistor density and integrating heterogeneous circuits. This two challenges to overcome leads to a new one: the improvement of the interconnect density. In 2D circuits, the pitch of the pads is still inaccurate compared to the strong component density. Wire bonding and bumps connecting the different chips (Processor, Memory, Logic…) are long and big, leading to RC delays, losses and electrical coupling. 3D integration is a promising strategy consisting in optimizing interconnects by processing TSVs, short and high-density-allowed connections crossing the silicon bulk involving an electrically efficient way to connect the chips. To achieve high performance and reliability in 3D IC, new design rules have to be investigated because of the specific electrical, mechanical and thermal constraints for 3D stacks. Works presented focus on the high frequency substrate noise generated by high speed signals transmitted along TSVs and its impact on sensitive circuits, such as Low Noise Amplifiers. This phenomenon is a major concern for 3D circuit design and yet still lack of extraction results due to experimental difficulties in extracting noise values in a complex 3D stack. The aim of the thesis was to characterize the coupling noise between TSV and MOS devices to understand involved phenomena and to propose solutions. To raise these objectives, we studied isolated TSV, coupled TSV, TSV to wells and MOS transistor coupling through multi-physics simulations, modeling, and measurement up to 40GHz according to polarization and frequency. Specific 3D radiofrequency test structures in 4 ports have been designed for experimental characterization.