Selfish genetic elements break the rules of Mendelian inheritance to bias their transmission to following generations, often with negative fitness consequences. A striking example involves selfish X chromosomes that operate in males and interfere with the production of sperm that carry a Y chromosome. Only X chromosome-bearing sperm are produced, and this can result in extraordinary female-biased sex-ratio distortions. Most studies have focused on how selfish X chromosomes operate in and affect males, and there has been relatively little work on their consequences in females. In this thesis, I characterize fitness effects and transmission in females, in a recently discovered selfish X chromosome system in Drosophila testacea, a common woodland fly. I show that females with two copies of the selfish X chromosome have reduced fitness compared to females carrying zero, or one copy. Specifically, these females have a lower hatch rate and lifetime fecundity. Additionally, I show that heterozygous females are more likely to transmit the selfish X chromosome than the wildtype copy to their offspring. I observe this transmission bias in eggs, larvae, and adults, which suggests that the selfish X chromosome is preferentially segregating into the egg, rather than the polar bodies, during oogenesis. We believe this is the first documented case of a selfish X chromosome acting through both sexes. The negative fitness effects and the biased transmission in males and females will have important consequences on the evolutionary dynamics of the selfish X chromosome. In addition, the phenomenon of biased transmission in both sexes has the potential to yield interesting insights in the mechanism of meiotic drive. / Graduate / 2022-05-12

京都大学 / 新制・論文博士 / 博士(医学) / 乙第13537号 / 論医博第2277号 / 新制||医||1065(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 篠原 隆司, 教授 近藤 玄, 教授 齋藤 潤 / 学位規則第4条第2項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

No description available.

No description available.

Los ovocitos ováricos totalmente crecidos de anfibios están fisiológicamente arrestados en la profase de la primera división meiótica. La progesterona, a través de un proceso denominado maduración, induce el desarresto ovocitario que se traduce en la ruptura de la vesícula germinal (GVBD). Se acepta generalmente que la hormona desencadena la maduración por un mecanismo no genómico que involucra la inhibición de la adenilil ciclasa y la disminución del AMPc intracelular a través de la unión a un receptor ligado a la membrana plasmática. Como respuesta al estímulo hormonal se sintetiza la oncoproteína c-Mos cuya actividad biológica está mediada por la cascada de las proteínas activadas por mitógenos (MAPK). En conjunto con la activación de reguladores del ciclo celular estos caminos convergen en la activación del factor promotor de la maduración (MPF). Los rafts de membrana, en particular la estructura invaginada de las caveolae, podrían proporcionar un ambiente óptimo para la interacción entre la progesterona y el ovocito en la maduración meiótica. Sin embargo, las bases moleculares y los mecanismos de la posible participación de los microdominios caveolares en la transducción de señales de la maduración aún no han sido completamente dilucidados. En este trabajo de tesis se analizó el efecto de la maduración inducida por la progesterona sobre el contenido y la composición de los lípidos neutros y polares de las plaquetas vitelinas, organelas del ovocito de Bufo arenarum que cumplen un rol importante durante la embriogénesis. Se realizó un análisis cuantitativo de los lípidos y de las proteínas de las membranas de baja densidad aisladas de ovocitos ováricos y la identificación bioquímica y el estudio biofísico de los microdominios tipo-caveolares, como un requisito para comprender mejor sus funciones regulatorias. La metil-β-ciclodextrina (MβCD) se usó como herramienta para modular el colesterol celular con el fin de evaluar la participación de los rafts de membrana en la maduración inducida por progesterona y en la inducida por ceramida, disparador de la reiniciación de la meiosis en otras especies de anfibios. En particular, se indagó la vía de las MAPK en la señalización de la maduración meiótica. Se demostró que los lípidos de las plaquetas vitelinas están involucrados activamente en la reiniciación del ciclo meiótico lo que apoya la hipótesis de un rol dinámico de estas organelas. La maduración produjo una disminución en el contenido total de fosfolípidos fundamentalmente por la caída de fosfatidilcolina, un fosfolípido considerado esencial para que se complete la meiosis. Los principales cambios en el perfil de ácidos grasos se observaron en esfingomielina, en ácido fosfatídico y en los diacilgliceroles, lípidos bioactivos implicados en caminos de señalización celular. El tratamiento hormonal disminuyó el nivel de la esfingomielina plaquetaria lo que podría vincularse con su rol como precursor de ceramidas. Se pusieron a punto distintos métodos de aislamiento de microdominios de membrana y se logró obtener una fracción de membranas livianas en ausencia de detergentes. Se determinó que dicha fracción deriva de la membrana plasmática, está enriquecida en colesterol y en el gangliósido GM1 y presenta un nivel importante de esfingomielina. Las membranas livianas muestran un enriquecimiento en una caveolina de 21 kDa indicando la existencia de estructuras tipo-caveolares en el ovocito de Bufo arenarum. Además, están asociadas significativamente con las moléculas señales, c-Src y H-Ras. En estas membranas se encontró una banda proteica que, por espectrometría de masa, se identificó como la cadena pesada de la miosina no muscular planteando la posibilidad de una relación con el citoesqueleto. La depleción de colesterol, mediada por MβCD, afectó principalmente el nivel de colesterol de las membranas livianas alterando el orden lipídico y la localización de los marcadores moleculares de rafts, caveolina, c-Src y GM1, e inhibiendo la maduración de manera dosis-dependiente lo que sugiere que estos microdominios de membrana están involucrados en la inducción hormonal. La repleción de colesterol indicó una recuperación de la habilidad para madurar de los ovocitos tratados especialmente en la concentración de MβCD 25 mM en la cual la reversibilidad fue cercana al valor control. Se demostró que la ceramida es un inductor efectivo de la maduración que afecta la distribución de los marcadores moleculares de rafts en las fracciones de membrana. Por el contrario, la progesterona no parece afectar la integridad de los microdominios de membrana. En concordancia con la inhibición de la GVBD, el tratamiento con MβCD retardó la fosforilación en tirosinas y la activación de la p42 MAPK en la maduración inducida por progesterona. La presencia de los marcadores de rafts, caveolina, GM1, c-Src y H-Ras, y el hallazgo de moléculas señales de la cascada de las MAPK funcionalmente asociadas a las membranas livianas, sugieren que esta fracción enriquecida en microdominios tipo-caveolares puede, en parte, recrear eficazmente la señalización de la maduración. / Amphibian full-grown ovarian oocytes are physiologically arrested at the first meiotic prophase. Progesterone, through a mechanism called maturation, induces meiotic resumption represented by germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD). It is generally accepted that progesterone hormone triggers maturation through a nongenomic mechanism that involves the inhibition of adenylyl cyclase and the reduction of intracellular cAMP by association with a plasma membrane receptor. As a response to the hormonal stimuli oncoprotein c-Mos is synthesized and its biological activity is mediated by the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade. Together with the activation of cell cycle regulators, both pathways converge in the activation of the M-phase promoting factor (MPF). Membrane rafts, particularly the invaginated structure of caveolae, seems to provide an optimal environment for hormone binding leading to meiotic maturation. However, the molecular bases and the mechanisms of the posible caveolar microdomain involvement in maturation signal transduction pathways have not been fully elucidated to date. In the present thesis, the effect of progesterone-induced maturation on the quantity and composition of neutral and polar lipids of yolk platelets, organelles from Bufo arenarum oocyte that play an important role during embryogenesis, were analyzed. A quantitative analysis of lipids and proteins of low-density membranes isolated from ovarian oocytes and the biochemical identification and a biophysical study of caveolae-like microdomains were performed as a requisite to further understand how these domains carry out their regulatory functions. Methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) was thus used for cellular cholesterol modulation in order to assess the membrane raft involvement in maturation induced by progesterone and by ceramide, the latter being trigger of meiosis reinitiation in other amphibian species. We demonstrated that lipids from yolk platelets are actively involved in the resumption of the meiotic cell cycle supporting the hypothesis of a dynamic role for these organelles. Phospholipid content decreased mainly as a result of a fall at the level of phosphatidylcholine, a phospholipid considered crucial for the completion of meiosis. Fatty acid composition registered significant changes in sphingomyelin, phosphatidic acid and diacylglycerols, bioactive lipids involved in cellular signaling pathways. Hormonal treatment induced a decrease at sphingomyelin level that could be related to its role as ceramide precursor. Different isolation methods were assayed to obtain membrane microdomains and a light membrane fraction was obtained in the absence of detergents. Light membranes derive from the plasma membrane, show an enrichment in cholesterol and GM1 ganglioside, and evidence an important level of sphingomyelin. The finding of a 21 kDa caveolin enriched in light membranes indicates the presence of caveolae-like structures in Bufo arenarum oocytes. In support of this finding, signaling molecules as c-Src and H-Ras are significantly associated to this fraction. A protein band was found in these membranes and it was identified as a non-muscle myosin heavy chain by mass spectrometry suggesting possible membrane-cytoskeleton interactions. Cholesterol depletion mediated by MβCD affected mainly light membranes cholesterol level disturbing lipid order and localization of rafts markers, caveolin, c-Src, and GM1 and inhibiting maturation in a dose-dependent manner, thus suggesting that these membrane microdomains are involved in hormonal induction. Cholesterol repletion showed a recovery of the ability of MβCD-treated oocytes to mature, particularly at the 25 mM concentration at which reversibility was close to control level. We also demonstrated that ceramide is an effective inducer of maturation that affects the distribution of raft markers among membrane fractions. On the contrary, progesterone seems not to affect membrane microdomain integrity. In agreement with GVBD inhibition, MβCD treatment delayed tyrosine phosphorylation and p42 MAPK activation in progesterone-induced maturation. The presence of the rafts markers, caveolin, GM1, c-Src, and H-Ras, and the finding of signaling molecules from the MAPK cascade functionally associated to light membranes suggest that this fraction enriched in caveolae-like microdomains could efficiently recreate, at least in part, maturation signaling.

No description available.

Previous evidence has shown that the simple sequences microsatellites and poly-purine/poly-pyrimidine tracts (PPTs) could be both a cause, and an effect, of meiotic recombination. The causal link between simple sequences and recombination has not been much explored, however, probably because other evidence has cast doubt on its generality, though this evidence has never been conclusive. Several questions have remained unanswered in the literature, and I have addressed aspects of three of them in my thesis. First, what is the scale and magnitude of the association between simple sequences and recombination? I found that microsatellites and PPTs are strongly associated with meiotic double-strand break (DSB) hotspots in yeast, and that PPTs are generally more common in human recombination hotspots, particularly in close proximity to hotspot central regions, in which recombination events are markedly more frequent. I also showed that these associations can't be explained by coincidental mutual associations between simple sequences, recombination and other factors previously shown to correlate with both. A second question not conclusively answered in the literature is whether simple sequences, or their high levels of polymorphism, are an effect of recombination. I used three methods to address this question. Firstly, I investigated the distributions of two-copy tandem repeats and short PPTs in relation to yeast DSB hotspots in order to look for evidence of an involvement of recombination in simple sequence formation. I found no significant associations. Secondly, I compared the fraction of simple sequences containing polymorphic sites between human recombination hotspots and coldspots. The third method I used was generalized linear model analysis, with which I investigated the correlation between simple sequence variation and recombination rate, and the influence on the correlation of additional factors with potential relevance including GC-content and gene density. Both the direct comparison and correlation methods showed a very weak and inconsistent effect of recombination on simple sequence polymorphism in the human genome.Whether simple sequences are an important cause of recombination events is a third question that has received relatively little previous attention, and I have explored one aspect of it. Simple sequences of the types I studied have previously been shown to form non-B-DNA structures, which can be recombinagenic in model systems. Using a previously described sodium bisulphite modification assay, I tested for the presence of these structures in sequences amplified from the central regions of hotspots and cloned into supercoiled plasmids. I found significantly higher sensitivity to sodium bisulphite in humans in than in chimpanzees in three out of six genomic regions in which there is a hotspot in humans but none in chimpanzees. In the DNA2 hotspot, this correlated with a clear difference in numbers of molecules showing long contiguous strings of converted cytosines, which are present in previously described intramolecular quadruplex and triplex structures. Two out of the five other hotspots tested show evidence for secondary structure comparable to a known intramolecular triplex, though with similar patterns in humans and chimpanzees. In conclusion, my results clearly motivate further investigation of a functional link between simple sequences and meiotic recombination, including the putative role of non-B-DNA structures.

O arsênio inorgânico, um contaminante ambiental, produz uma série de respostas de estresse em células de mamíferos, incluindo o comprometimento da função mitocondrial, acompanhado por inibição do crescimento celular e carcinogênese. Como previamente identificamos efeitos deletérios do comprometimento da função mitocondrial e dos radicais livres do oxigênio na oogênese, investigamos os efeitos do arsenito na meiose, no desenvolvimento embrionário pré-implantação e na apoptose embrionária em camundongos. Camundongas com 6 semanas de idade foram tratadas com baixa (0,16 mg) ou média dose de arsenito (0,32 mg), por meio de 7 injeções intraperitoneais, 1 a cada 2 dias, durante 14 dias. Os controles foram injetados com solvente. A incidência de anomalias meióticas, caracterizadas por anormalidades do fuso celular e/ou mal alinhamento cromossômico, foi significantemente aumentada tanto nos oócitos in vivo ovulados, como nos in vitro maturados, oriundos dos animais tratados com arsenito. Foram detectadas reduções significativas das taxas de clivagem (24 horas de cultivo), de formação de mórula (72 h) e de desenvolvimento para blastocisto (96 h), nos embriões dos grupos tratados com arsenito. Apesar do número total de núcleos não ter diferido significativamente entre os blastocistos dos grupos controle e de tratamento, a percentagem de núcleos apoptóticos foi significantivamente maior nos blastocistos derivados dos animais tratados com a dose média de arsenito. Estes dados sugerem que o arsenito causa aberrações meióticas, que podem contribuir tanto para o comprometimento do desenvolvimento embrionário pré-implantação, como para a apoptose embrionária. / Inorganic arsenic, an environmental contaminant, produces a variety of stress responses in mammalian cells, including mitochondrial uncoupling accompanied by growth inhibition and carcinogenesis. Because previously we identified detrimental effects of mitochondrial uncoupling, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) on oogenesis, we investigated effects of arsenite on meiosis, early embryo development, and apoptosis in mice. Six-week-old CD-1 mice were treated with either low (0.16mg) or medium (0.32mg) doses of arsenite every two days by 7 intraperitoneal injections for 14 days, and controls were injected with solvent. The incidence of meiotic anomalies, characterized by spindle disruption and/or chromosomal misalignment or spreading, was significantly increased in both in vivo and in vitro treated oocytes. Further, we found a significant decrease in cleavage rates at 24h, morula formation at 72h, and development to blastocyst at 96h in treated groups. Although the total number of nuclei in developed blastocysts did not significantly differ between the treated and control groups, the percentage of apoptotic nuclei was significantly increased in blastocysts derived from the medium dose treated group. These data suggest that arsenite causes meiotic aberrations, which may contribute to decreased cleavage and preimplantation development, as well as increased apoptosis.

A qualidade do oócito é um fator limitante na fertilidade das fêmeas e reflete seu intrínseco potencial ao desenvolvimento embrionário subsequente. As alterações moleculares e bioquímicas no processo de maturação dos oócitos são necessárias para permitir a fecundação destes. Sob influência das gonadotrofinas, uma cascata de eventos é desencadeada, alterando a expressão gênica e a estrutura dos folículos. A maturação ocorre pelo intercâmbio entre o oócito e as células do cumulus que irão fornecer fatores para o desenvolvimento do oócito e criar o microambiente necessário para garantir o sucesso na maturação. A ação do FSH sobre a retomada da meiose ocorre, possivelmente, por ativação da proteína quinase C (PKC). A via de sinalização desta proteína parece estar envolvida na ativação da quinase ativada por mitógeno (MAPK) em oócitos e células do cumulus, na maturação induzida por FSH e LH, além de regular a síntese do Fator de Crescimento Epidermal (EGF). Deste modo, o objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar a ação da PKC na maturação de oócitos bovinos e se esta ativação envolve o EGF. Para tal foram realizados dois experimentos. Em ambos, a progressão do ciclo celular foi avaliada utilizando a sonda fluorescente Hoechst 33342. A expansão das células do cumulus foi avaliada utilizando-se o software Image Pro Plus 5.1 para análise das imagens dos oócitos geradas em microscópio Olympus IX81. O maior diâmetro de cada complexo cumulus oócito foi adotado como parâmetro de mensuração da expansão. A dosagem de progesterona do meio de cultivo foi realizada pela técnica de RIA. A ativação da PKC e da MAPK foi avaliada pela técnica de Western blot. Os dados foram avaliados pelo software SigmaPlot versão 12.2 e submetidos ao teste de normalidade (Shapiro-Wilk). Quando necessário, os dados foram transformados. Para comparação entre dois tratamentos, utilizou-se o teste t-student. Para mais de dois tratamentos foi realizada análise de variância e teste de comparação de médias (TUKEY), considerando-se 0,05 para rejeitar a hipótese de nulidade. No experimento 1 foi avaliado se a ativação da PKC foi estimulada por gonadotrofinas. Os oócitos foram maturados in vitro tratados com gonadotrofinas, na presença ou ausência do inibidor de PKC. A presença do inibidor de PKC diminuiu as taxas de quebra de vesícula germinativa e a expansão das células do cumulus, sem alterar a esteroidogênese. Estes resultados demonstram que a PKC participa da via de sinalização da retomada da meiose. No experimento 2 foi avaliado se o EGF está envolvido na via regulada pela PKC. Os oócitos foram maturados in vitro, na presença ou ausência de LH e FSH, do inibidor de PKC e do EGF. O EGF foi capaz de reverter os efeitos do inibidor de PKC, aumentando as taxas de quebra de vesícula germinativa e a expansão de células do cumulus. Não foi possível detectar, nas condições deste experimento, a ativação das proteínas PKC e MAPK através do Western Blot. Este trabalho permite concluir que a via de sinalização da maturação de oócitos bovinos envolve a PKC e sugere a participação do EGF nesta via. / Oocyte quality is a limiting factor in female fertility and reflects its potential to the subsequent embryonic development. Molecular and biochemical alterations during the oocyte maturation process are needed to allow fecundation. Under gonadotropin influence, cascade of events occurs changing gene expression and follicle structure. Maturation depends on the interaction between oocyte and cumulus cells interaction, which provides factors for oocyte development and create the ideal microenvironment for the success of the maturation process. The FSH stimulation of meiosis resumption probably occurs through PKC activation. The signaling pathway of PKC might be involved by the mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) in oocytes and cumulus cells during FSH-LH induced maturation. Furthermore, MAPK regulates the epidermal growth factor (EGF) synthesis. The aim of the present study was to evaluate PKC function during bovine oocyte maturation and if its activity involves EGF. Two experiments were performed. In both experiments, the cell cycle progression was analyzed by Hoechst 33342 fluorescent dye. The cumulus cells expansion was performed using software Image Pro Plus 5.1 by the analysis of oocyte images taken in Olympus IX81 microscope. The highest diameter of each cumulus oocyte complex was recorded as the expansion value. The RIA and Western Blot techniques were used to measure progesterone concentration in the culture media and the PKC and MAPK activity, respectively. Data was analyzed by SigmaPlot software, version 12.2. The Shapiro-Wilk test was used to assess for normality and, when needed, the data was transformed. Student t tests were carried out to compare two treatments. Differences between more than two means were assessed by analysis of variance followed by Tukey test, considering P-value lower than 0.05 as statistically significant. Experiment 1 studied whether PKC function was stimulated by gonadotropins. FSH and LH were used for oocyte maturation in vitro, with or without PKC inhibitor. The presence of PKC inhibitor decreased germinal vesicle breakdown and the cumulus cells expansion, but did not alter the steroidogenesis. These results show that PKC participates in the signaling pathway of meiosis resumption. The Experiment 2 evaluated whether EGF influences PKC signaling pathway. The oocytes were matured in vitro, in the presence or absence of LH and FSH, PKC inhibitor and EGF. Epidermal Growth Factor was able to reverse PKC inhibitor effects, increasing germinal vesicle breakdown rates and cumulus cells expansion. The Western Blot technique was not able to detect PKC and MAPK activity, considering the conditions of this study. In conclusion, PKC is involved in the signaling pathway of bovine oocytes maturation and its pathway is mediated by EGF.

La protéine Mlh1 eucaryote est un acteur central de la voie de réparation des mésappariements (MMR). Chez la levure, Mlh1 forme un hétérodimère via sa région C-terminale avec les endonucléases Pms1 et Mlh3. La région C-terminale de Mlh1 est également en interactions avec l’exonucléase Exo1 du MMR et deux protéines Ntg2 et Sgs1 qui sont impliquées dans d’autres voies de réparation. Dans un premier temps, nous avons identifié et caractérisé le site d’interaction de Mlh1 avec les protéines Exo1, Ntg2 et Sgs1, qui utilisent un même motif de 5 acides aminés, (R/K)SK(Y/F)F appelé motif MIP pour Mlh1 Interacting Protein. Nous avons montré que ces 3 protéines interagissent en un même site, appelé site S2. Nous avons identifié 10 positions de Mlh1 impliquées dans le site S2 et caractérisé par microcalorimétrie, une affinité micromolaire entre des peptides contenant le motif MIP et la région C-terminale de Mlh1. Nous avons montré que les protéines EXO1 et BLM humaines qui possèdent également un motif MIP, interagissent spécifiquement avec MLH1 humain par ce motif. Dans un second temps, nous avons résolu la structure cristallographique à 2.6Å de la région C-terminale de l’hétérodimère Mlh1*Pms1. Le site d’hétérodimèrisation présente une surface d’interaction supérieure à celle observée dans les homodimères de MutL bactériens. La structure résolue confirme le rôle des 10 acides aminés de Mlh1 identifiés lors de la caractérisation du site S2. La structure du site endonucléase de Pms1 révèle la présence de deux atomes de zinc chelatés par 5 acides aminés de Pms1 et le dernier acide aminé de la protéine Mlh1, la cystéine C769. Cette première structure d’une région C-terminale d’un complexe Mlh1*Pms1 eucaryote permet d’analyser la position des nombreux mutants ponctuels de MLH1 humain associés à des cancers du côlon HNPCC. / Eucaryotic Mlh1 is a core component of mismatch repair pathway (MMR). In yeast organisms, Mlh1 forms heterodimer with its C-terminal region with endonucleases Pms1 and Mlh3. The C-terminal region of Mlh1 is also involved in interactions with MMR exonuclease Exo1 and two proteins, Ntg2 and Sgs1, which are involved in other DNA repair pathways. First, we identified and charaterised the interaction site between Mlh1 and proteins Exo1, Ntg2, and Sgs1, that share the same motif of 5 amino acids, (R/K)SK(Y/F)F, named MIP box for Mlh1 Interacting Protein. We showed that these 3 proteins bind to the same site, named site S2. 10 positions of Mlh1 important for interactions on site S2 were identified and a micromolar affinity was measured by calorimetry between the C-terminal region of Mlh1 and peptides containing a MIP box. We showed that human EXO1 and BLM specifically with human MLH1 through their MIP box. Secondly, we solved the X-ray structure of the C-terminal region of Mlh1*Pms1 heterodimer at 2.6Å. The structure shows that the surface buried upon heterodimerisation is higher in eucaryotes than in MutL homodimers. The structure confirms the overall structure of the site S2 predicted in the first part of this study. The endonuclease site of Pms1 presents in the crystal two zinc atoms that are bound by five Pms1 residues and the last residue of Mlh1 chain, cystein C769. This structure represents the first image of the C-terminal region of an eucaryote Mlh1*Pms1 heterodimer. It allows localizing the positions of human MLH1 mutants associated with colon cancers named HNPCC.