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No description available.

Muscular dystrophies are a heterogeneous group of genetic diseases that involve mutations in genes leading to progressive muscular weakness. Limb-Girdle Muscular Dystrophy 2B (LGMD2B) is a subset of muscular dystrophy caused by mutations in the DYSF gene, which encodes for dysferlin protein and has an incidence of 1/100,000-1/200,000 people, or 1/300 people of Libyan Jewish descent. Since there is no effective treatment that can cure or reverse effects of LGMD2B once diagnosed, our goal is to investigate and develop a protein therapy that mitigates effects of this disease in patients. Galectin-1 (Gal-1) is a small, soluble 14.5 kDa protein with a carbohydrate recognition domain capable of stabilizing the sarcolemma. The exact role that Gal-1 plays in myogenic cells is not fully understood, however, it is known that Gal-1 possesses anti-inflammatory properties and increases the terminal differentiation of committed myogenic cells. Our hypothesis is that Gal-1 treatment increases myogenic potential, improves membrane repair capability, and modulates the immune response in models of LGMD2B by stabilizing muscle integrity, leading to decreased disease manifestation. To test this hypothesis and assess the effect of Gal-1 treatment on myogenesis, anti-inflammatory modulation, and membrane repair, we designed, produced, and purified recombinant human galectin-1 (rHsGal-1) to be used in LGMD2B models. Our in vitro results indicate that after 2-3 days of treatment with 0.11μM rHsGal-1, A/J-/- myotubes enhance expression of myogenic late markers and increase in size and alignment. Additionally, after short-term treatment, rHsGal-1 improves membrane repair capability in a Ca2+ independent manner through an activated carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) in in vitro and in vivo models of LGMD2B. We give evidence that rHsGal-1 upregulates anti-inflammatory cytokines, increases functional activity, and modulates the canonical NF-κB inflammatory pathway in dysferlin-deficient models by decreasing expression of TAK-1 and the p65 and p50 subunits in vitro and short-term in vivo treatment. Similar effects of the rHsGal-1 treatment were observed in patient-derived dysferlin-deficient human myotubes. Exploratory results show a potential decrease in muscle fat deposition in Bla/J mice. Furthermore, Gal-1 contributes to immune modulation by helping to initiate muscle regeneration by shifting M2 macrophage polarization. Together, our novel discoveries provide direct evidence that Gal-1 is a promising candidate to treat LGMD2B disease pathologies by improving expression of late-stage myogenic markers, improving membrane repair in vitro and short-term in vivo studies, promoting muscle regeneration through immune modulation, and reducing canonical NF-κB inflammation.

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Les dystrophies musculaires sont un groupe de pathologies génétiques qui cause une faiblesse et une perte progressive des muscles squelettiques. Parmi elles, la dystrophie des ceintures de type 2B (LGMD2B) est caractérisée par des mutations dans le gène de la dysferline, entrainant de sévères dysfonctionnements, dont un défaut de réparation membranaire. Les ruptures de la membrane plasmique sont des évènements physiologiques induits par des contraintes mécaniques, comme lors de la contraction des fibres musculaires. Les cellules eucaryotes possèdent donc une machinerie protéique assurant une réparation rapide de larges ruptures membranaires. La liste exhaustive des composants de la machinerie de réparation et leur mode d’action reste à établir.Les annexines (Anx) sont de petites protéines solubles, au nombre de 12 chez les mammifères, qui partagent la propriété de lier les membranes exposant des phospholipides chargés négativement en présence de Ca2+. De nombreuses études ont montré l’implication de certaines Anx (AnxA1, A2, A4, A5, A6 et A7) dans la réparation membranaire de différents types cellulaires (muscle, cancer, endothélium…) et dans différentes espèces (souris, poisson-zèbre, homme…). La présence des Anx dans le muscle squelettique, et la participation de plusieurs membres de cette famille dans la réparation membranaire, soulèvent la question d’un rôle collectif de ces protéines dans la protection et la réparation des ruptures du sarcolemme.Les objectifs de ce travail ont été 1) d’identifier les Anx impliquées dans la réparation membranaire des cellules musculaires squelettiques humaines, 2) développer une stratégie de microscopie corrélative pour étudier le site de rupture et la distribution subcellulaire des Anx à haute résolution, 3) élucider la fonction des Anx dans le mécanisme de réparation, et 4) analyser les Anx dans des cellules musculaires dystrophiques. Avec des approches en biologie cellulaire et moléculaire, et en microscopie de fluorescence et électronique, nous avons donc étudié le comportement des Anx lors d’un dommage du sarcolemme.Nous avons ainsi montré que les AnxA1, A2, A4, A5 et A6 sont exprimées dans les myoblastes et les myotubes humains, et sont recrutées au site de rupture quelques secondes après le dommage, en formant une structure dense à l’extérieur du myotube endommagé appelé domaine « cap ». De plus, nous avons pu déterminer l’ordre relatif de recrutement des Anx au site membranaire endommagé. Les premières Anx à être recrutées sont l’AnxA1, suivies des AnxA6 et A5, les moins sensibles au Ca2+. Les dernières Anx recrutées sont les plus sensibles au Ca2+, les AnxA4 puis A2, qui semblent se lier à des vésicules intracellulaires initialement éloignées du site de rupture. Nous avons également étudié l’ultrastructure du site de rupture à haute résolution. Nos résultats ont révélé que le domaine « cap » correspondait à une accumulation de matériel membranaire qui est associé au Anx. En s’appuyant sur nos résultats et la littérature, nous avons proposé un modèle de réparation membranaire, impliquant les AnxA1, A2, A4, A5 et A6, dans les cellules musculaires squelettiques humaines. Nous nous sommes également intéressés à l’expression des Anx dans des lignées de cellules musculaires dystrophiques issues de patients atteints de dystrophies musculaires des ceintures de type 2B (déficients en dysferline) et 1C (déficients en cavéoline-3). Nous avons ainsi montré que le contexte pathologique perturbait l’expression de certaines Anx, sans en modifier leur localisation subcellulaire.En conclusion, ce travail de thèse montre que plusieurs membres de la famille des Anx sont impliqués dans la réparation membranaire, et agissent de concert pour réparer un dommage de la membrane plasmique. L’implication des Anx dans d’autres pathologies, comme le cancer et la pré-éclampsie, renforce l’intérêt de leur étude dans les processus de réparation membranaire et en font une cible thérapeutique potentielle. / Muscular dystrophy encompasses a group of genetic disorders which cause progressive weakness and wasting of skeletal muscle. Among them, limb girdle muscular dystrophy type 2B (LGMD2B) is characterized by mutations in the dysferlin gene leading to several dysfunctions including a failure in cell membrane repair process. Cell membrane disruption is a physiological phenomenon induced by mechanical stress, such as contraction of muscle fibers. Thus, eukaryotic cells have a repair protein machinery ensuring a rapid resealing of large cell membrane ruptures. The exhaustive list of components of the repair machinery and their interplay remain to be established.The annexin (Anx) family consists of twelve soluble proteins in mammals and share the property of binding to membranes exposing negatively charged phospholipids in a Ca2+-dependent manner. Several studies have shown the involvement of Anx (AnxA1, A2, A4, A5, A6 and A7) in membrane repair of different cell types (muscle, cancer, endothelium…) in different species (mouse, zebrafish, human…). The presence of different Anx in skeletal muscle, together with the participation of several members of the Anx family in membrane repair processes, raise the question of a collective role of these proteins in the protection and repair of sarcolemma injuries.The PhD project aimed 1) at identifying Anx that are essential for membrane repair in human skeletal muscle cells, 2) developing a correlative light and electron microscopy to study the wounded site and the Anx distribution at high resolution, 3) elucidating the function of each Anx in this process and 4) analyzing Anx in dystrophic muscle cells. Using approaches including cellular and molecular biology, fluorescence microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, we studied the behavior of Anx during sarcolemma damage.We showed that AnxA1, A2, A4, A5 and A6 are expressed in human myoblasts and myotubes, and are recruited at the disruption site within seconds after the sarcolemmal damage, forming a dense structure outside the cell, named the “cap” domain. Furthermore, we determined the relative order of Anx recruitment at the disruption site. The first Anx recruited are AnxA1, followed by AnxA6 and A5, the less sensitive to Ca2+. The last Anx recruited are the most sensitive to Ca2+, AnxA4 and A2. AnxA2 and A4 are instead rapidly recruited to intracellular vesicles present deeper in the cytosol. We also studied the ultrastructure of the disruption site at high resolution. Our results revealed that the “cap” domain correspond to a disorganized membrane structure, associated with the Anx. Thanks to our results and the literature, we have proposed a model for membrane repair involving Anx in human skeletal muscle cells. We also looked at the expression of Anx in dystrophic muscle cell lines from patients with limb girdle muscular dystrophy type 2B (dysferline deficient) and 1C (deficient in cadaveoline-3). We have thus shown that the pathological context disrupts the expression of some Anx, without altering their subcellular location.In conclusion, this work shows that several members of the Anx family are involved in membrane repair and act together to repair plasma membrane damage. The implication of Anx in other pathologies, such as preeclampsia or cancer, reinforces the interest of their study in the process of membrane repair.

La membrane plasmique est un assemblage supramoléculaire qui délimite la cellule. C’est une structure fine, complexe et dynamique assurant des fonctions multiples et vitales pour la cellule. Sa rupture est un évènement physiologique pour les cellules soumises à des stress mécaniques fréquents et/ou importants, comme les cellules épithéliales, les cellules endothéliales ou les cellules musculaires. Dans des conditions physiopathologiques, la membrane plasmique peut également être endommagée par l’insertion de toxines bactériennes formant des pores (PFTs, pour « pore forming toxins »). Le processus de réparation membranaire et la machinerie protéique associée sont encore mal connus. Connaître les partenaires protéiques et comprendre les mécanismes mis en jeu durant le processus de réparation de la membrane plasmique sont deux enjeux fondamentaux majeurs. En effet, il a été établi qu’une défaillance du processus de réparation membranaire pour les fibres musculaires est la cause principale de certaines dystrophies musculaires. La machinerie protéique de réparation comprend des protéines comme la dysferline, la cavéoline-3 et certaines Annexines (Anx). Les Anx appartiennent à une superfamille de protéines répandue chez la plupart des eucaryotes, qui ont la propriété commune de se lier aux membranes biologiques en présence de calcium (Ca2+). Certaines Anx, comme l’AnxA5, une fois liées aux membranes biologiques s’auto-assemblent spontanément en réseau-2D. Lors de ce travail de thèse, nous avons étudié le rôle de l’AnxA5 dans la réparation membranaire des trophoblastes placentaires et des cellules du muscle squelettique humain. Pour les deux types cellulaires, nous avons montré que l’AnxA5 est un acteur indispensable du processus de réparation membranaire dans le cas de ruptures mécaniques. En associant des approches de microscopie de fluorescence et de microscopie électronique à transmission (MET), nous avons mis en évidence que dans ces cellules, le mécanisme de réparation est principalement basé sur la formation d’un « patch » lipidique. Dans les cellules musculaires, les expériences de MET ont mis en évidence qu’un pool d’AnxA5 endogène se lie aux bords du site de rupture quelques secondes après la lésion du sarcolemme. Ceci suggère qu’après rupture de la membrane plasmique, l’augmentation locale de la concentration calcique intracellulaire provoque la liaison de l’AnxA5 spécifiquement aux bords de la région membranaire lésée où elle forme un réseau-2D. Le réseau-2D stabiliserait localement la membrane et préviendrait sa déchirure, induite par les forces de tensions exercées par le cytosquelette cortical. Nous avons également montré que l’AnxA5 ne semble pas impliquée dans la réparation de la membrane plasmique après insertion de PFTs. Ceci suggère que différents mécanismes de réparation existent et que leur mise en place dépend probablement du type ou de l’importance des dommages. Finalement nous avons étendu notre étude à des lignées cellulaires établies à partir de patients diagnostiqués comme souffrant de dystrophies des ceintures de type 2B (déficience en dysferline) et 1C (déficience en cavéoline-3), respectivement. Nous avons montré, pour ces lignées, que la déficience en dysferline ou cavéoline-3 provoque un défaut de réparation dans le cas des ruptures mécaniques de la membrane plasmique. Dans ces cellules musculaires pathologiques intactes ou endommagées, l’AnxA5 a le même comportement, ce qui suggère que l’action de l’AnxA5 est indépendante de ces protéines. A la différence des cellules déficientes en dysferline, nous avons observé que les cellules déficientes en cavéoline-3 sont capables de réparer efficacement des lésions créées par l’insertion de PFTs dans le sarcolemme. Ce résultat supporte l’hypothèse de l’existence de plusieurs mécanismes de réparation. En conclusion, ce travail montre que l’AnxA5 est un composant clé de la machinerie de réparation dans le cas des ruptures mécaniques. / Plasma membrane is the supramolecular assembly that delimits the cell. It is a thin, dynamic and complex structure, ensuring multiple and vital cell functions. Its disruption is a physiological event occurring in cells submitted to frequent mechanical stresses, such as endothelial cells, epithelial cells and muscle cells. It is also a physiological event for cells exposed to pore forming bacterial toxins (PFTs). Membrane repair mechanisms and associated protein machinery are still poorly understood. This knowledge is, however, essential for obvious physiopathological issues. Indeed, a defect of membrane repair in muscle cells leads to some muscular dystrophies. Membrane repair machinery includes proteins such as dysferlin, MG-53, caveolin-3 and some Annexins (Anx). Anx belong to a superfamily of proteins widely spread in most of eukaryotes, which share the property of binding to biological membranes in the presence of calcium (Ca2+). Here, we investigated the role of AnxA5 in cell membrane repair of human trophoblastic and skeletal muscle cells. We showed that AnxA5 is required for membrane repair of mechanical damages in the two cell types. By combining fluorescence and transmission electron microscopy approaches, we evidenced that membrane repair mechanism in these cells is based on the formation of a lipid “patch”. In human muscle cells, TEM experiments revealed that a pool of endogenous AnxA5 binds to the edges of the torn sarcolemma as soon as a few seconds after membrane disruption. Our results suggest the following mechanism: triggered by the local increase in Ca2+ concentration, AnxA5 molecules bind to PS exposed at the edges of the torn membrane, where they self-assemble into 2D arrays. The formation of 2D arrays strengthens the damaged sarcolemma, counteracts the tensions exerted by the cortical cytoskeleton and thus prevents the expansion of the tear. We showed also that a pool of endogenous AnxA5 binds to intracellular vesicles that obstruct the wounding site. It is likely these vesicles, once associated one to each other, ensure membrane resealing. Our results suggest that sarcolemma repair of damages caused by PFTs is independent of AnxA5. Therefore, different membrane repair mechanisms may exist, their occurrence probably depending on the type and/or the size of damages. Finally, we performed studies on muscle cells established from patients diagnosed with limb girdle muscular dystrophies type 2B (dysferlin-deficient) and 1C (caveolin-3-deficient), respectively. We found that dysferlin or caveolin-3 deficiency leads to a defect of membrane repair, in the case of mechanical damages. AnxA5 behaved similarly in these damaged cells and wild-type cells, suggesting that its function is independent of dysferlin or caveolin-3. Unlike dysferlin-deficient cells, damages created by PFTs are efficiently repaired in caveolin- 3-deficient cells. This result supports the hypothesis that different mechanisms occur in muscle cells, depending on the type of damage. In conclusion, this work indicates that AnxA5 is a key component of the membrane repair machinery, in the case of mechanical disruptions. Our results enable to propose a detailed mode of action for AnxA5.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Trypanosoma cruzi é o agente causador da doença de Chagas, uma das doenças tropicais mais negligenciadas. Estima-se que cerca de 11 milhões de pessoas no mundo estão infectadas por T. cruzi e cerca de 6 a 7 milhões de pessoas estão em risco por encontrarem-se em áreas endêmicas. Durante o processo de invasão moléculas do parasita e do hospedeiro interagem permitindo a transdução de sinal e a expressão de genes de modulação em resposta à invasão. A diversidade de proteínas e vias acionadas para reparar a lesão pela ruptura da membrana plasmática nos interessou e dessa forma o presente estudo desenvolveu uma nova forma de detecção e quantificação por reação em cadeia da polimerase em tempo real (qPCR) da carga parasitária de T. cruzi e a quantificou os níveis transcricionais relativos (RT-qPCR) da Disferlina, Esfingomielina esferase ácida (ASM), Fator de Transcrição EB (TFEB), Galectinas 1 e 3 e Anexina A2. Neste estudo, foi demonstrado que a quantificação por PCR em tempo real utilizando os iniciadores P21fw e P21rv foi específico e sensível para a detecção de T. cruzi in vivo e in vitro, bem como os níveis transcricionais de genes relacionados a organização do citoesqueleto e reparo de membrana plasmática são moduladas em resposta ao dano gerado pelo parasita. / Trypanosoma cruzi is causative agent of Chagas disease, one of most neglected tropical diseases. Estimated that about 11 million people worldwide are infected by T. cruzi and about 6 to 7 million people are at risk in endemic areas. During the process of invasion of host and parasite interact enabling signal transduction and gene expression modulation in response to invasion. The diversity of activated proteins and pathways to repair the damage by disruption of the plasma membrane interest to us and thus present study developed a new form of detection and quantitation by polymerase chain reaction in real time (qPCR) of parasitic load T. cruzi and quantified transcriptional levels relative (RT-qPCR) of dysferlin, Sphingomyelin acid esferase (ASM), transcription factor EB (TFEB) Galectins 1 and 3 and Annexin A2. This study demonstrated that quantification by real time PCR using primers P21fw and P21rv was specific and sensitive for detection of T. cruzi in vivo and in vitro, as well as transcriptional levels of genes related to cytoskeletal organization and repair plasma membrane are modulated in response to damage generated by parasite. / Tese (Doutorado)

Endocytosis is a fundamental cellular process by which cells transport material from the outside to the inside of the cell through the formation of membrane invaginations that bud off from the plasma membrane. This process is important for nutrient uptake, regulating cell surface receptors and the overall plasma membrane composition. Cells have several different types of endocytic pathways where clathrin- mediated endocytosis is the most studied. Importantly, pathogens and secreted virulence factors bind to cell surface receptors and hijack the endocytic pathways in order to enter host cells. Depending on their size and molecular composition, pathogens and virulence factors are thought to make use of distinct endocytic pathways into the cell. This thesis focuses on early host cell interactions with virus, bacterial membrane vesicles and a pore-forming toxin, with a particular emphasis on endocytic mechanisms and plasma membrane repair. During entry of pathogens, it is thought that interactions with specific cell surface molecules drive the recruitment of endocytic proteins to the plasma membrane. Viruses possess a very defined molecular composition and architecture, which facilitate specificity to these interactions. We found that Adenovirus 37, a human ocular pathogen, binds to αVβ1 and α3β1 integrins on human corneal epithelial cells and that this interaction is important for infection. In contrast to viruses, membrane vesicles shed from Helicobacter pylori are heterogeneous in size and molecular composition. These vesicles harbour various adhesins and toxins that may facilitate binding to the cell surface and recruitment of different endocytic pathways. We developed a quantitative internalization assay and showed that the H. pylori vesicles were internalized mainly via clathrin-mediated endocytosis but were also capable of exploiting other endocytic pathways. Damage to the plasma membrane disrupts cellular homeostasis and can lead to cell death if not repaired immediately. Although endocytic mechanisms have been shown to be important for plasma membrane repair, little is known about their specific role. Listeriolysin O (LLO) is a bacterial toxin that can form pores in the plasma membrane and disrupt cellular homeostasis. We developed a reporter system for real-time imaging of the endocytic response to LLO pore formation. We found that two clathrin-independent endocytic pathways were important for plasma membrane repair. However, they were not directly involved in removing LLO pores from the plasma membrane. Our data suggests that these endocytic systems might rather influence membrane repair by their ability to regulate the plasma membrane composition, shape and tension. In conclusion, this thesis describes how pathogens and their virulence factors make use of specific mechanisms to enter host cells as well as revealing new insights on the role of the endocytic pathways in plasma membrane repair.