Endocytosis effectuates a critical interface between the eukaryotic cell and its apposing environment. It is, subsequently, paramount for many physiologically important processes and encompasses a diverse array of mechanisms and pathways. The classical endocytic routes mediated by clathrin and caveolin are the best understood and the molecular roles of their major regulators, such as dynamin, adaptor proteins and various lipid species, are the most comprehensively described. Recent identification of an assortment of constitutive, noncaveolar, clathrin-independent endocytic (CIE) pathways has expanded the endocytic system. Unlike the classical endocytic pathways, little is known about the guiding parameters of CIE routes. Consequently, it is not possible to understand the important cellular roles these pathways may be fulfilling. This study has begun to characterise the very basic parameters governing the morphologically striking Clathrin-Independent Carrier (CLIC) pathway. Development of a diverse molecular toolkit has now allowed the quantitation of endocytic capacity provided by CLICs, the visualisation of subtle sorting components of the CLIC pathway, the isolation of novel CLIC cargo and regulators, and has linked this mechanism to the critical cellular processes of cellular migration and membrane repair. Calculation of the individual capacity of endocytic routes provides important information about the contribution of each pathway to total plasma membrane (PM) uptake and turnover. Quantitation of the volume, surface area and number of structures forming per minute in this study shows that CLICs provide the vast majority of constitutive endocytosis, up to four times the capacity of the clathrin mediated endocytic (CME) pathway. As the equivalent of the entire PM area could pass through the CLIC pathway within 12 minutes it is evident that CLICs are fundamental housekeepers of bulk membrane internalisation. Thus, they are likely to be central regulators of PM homeostasis and turnover. High-resolution tomography, in conjunction with analysis of CLIC cargo trafficking, identifies these carriers as complex, pleiomorphic structures that sort the bulk of membrane to early endosomes and recycle cargo back to the cell surface. Such vast internalisation combined with an ability to rapidly recycle components quickly attributes the CLIC pathway as a complex sorting station. Isolation of novel cargo and regulators has identified a striking array of proteins now associated with the CLIC pathway for the first time. A significant proportion of identified targets localise to lipid-rafts and recycle from the PM, facets consistent with association to the CLIC pathway. Numerous targets have also been directly implicated in clathrin-independent endocytosis by independent groups. Verification of selected cargo, such as CD44, Thy-1 and myoferlin, showing specific internalisation through the CLIC pathway, has provided insight into the sorting ability of the CLIC pathway and links to adhesion turnover and membrane recycling. Consistent with a role in cellular adhesion turnover, it was found that CLICs become polarised within migrating cells. This has shown the first instance of spatial separation between three major endocytic routes, CLICs, caveolae and CME and highlights the important and coordinated roles of multiple endocytic pathways during physiologically significant processes. The specific internalisation of paxillin, Thy-1 and CD44 through CLICs at the leading edge of migrating cells suggests that CLICs rapidly turnover adhesion components for dynamic extracellular sensation during directional cell migration. Indeed, specific ablation of the CLIC pathway significantly impedes cellular migration, implying coordination with CME at the leading edge. This study has defined numerous parameters of the CLIC pathway, developing the current understanding of this poorly defined route and places the CLIC pathway as a unique player during critical cellular processes.

Osteoblasts are highly active cells that are responsible for secreting bone forming components such as collagen type I and matricellular proteins that mediate collagen deposition and mineralisation. SPARC and osteopontin are matricellular proteins that are involved in bone regulation and cell-matrix interactions and are also upregulated in metastatic disease. Secretion of these proteins results in changes to the stromal environment that includes cell migration, angiogenesis, matrix degradation, matrix deposition, bone mineralisation and bone resorption. Signalling pathways not only lead to the expression of target proteins, but also have immediate early effects, for example, on cell adhesion. We asked if the ERK 1 and 2 module of the MAPK pathway was involved in the intracellular trafficking of SPARC and Osteopontin. Membrane trafficking is an essential process that ensures newly synthesised proteins pass from their site of synthesis to the extracellular environment. Using an inhibitor of ERK 1 and 2 activation (U0126), as well as siRNA directed against ERK 1 or 2 individually, a change in intracellular localisation of SPARC and osteopontin was observed in cells treated with U0126 and siRNA against ERK 2 alone, likely in or around the Golgi apparatus. Consistent with the observation above, analysis of protein secretion showed that there was a reduction of total protein secreted (30% reduction) when ERK 1 and 2 activation was prevented together or knock down of ERK 2 alone. A mechanism is proposed where ERK 2 is likely activating a substrate that is allowing SPARC and osteopontin to continue along the secretory pathway. This directly implicates ERK 2 as an important regulator of matricellular protein secretion in osteoblasts. In cancer, Ras mutations can lead to permanent activation of the MAPK pathway leading to cancer cell proliferation and survival, however, we propose another mechanism important in metastasis whereby ERK 2 activation is manipulated to facilitate secretion of matricellular proteins which can then mediate changes to the stromal environment that allow the tumour to metastasise successfully.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

Des mutations dans les gènes codant pour des myotubularines (MTM) sont responsables de maladies neuromusculaires telles que la XLCNM (MTM1) ou la CMT4 (MTMR2 & MTMR13). Les MTMs sont des phosphatases à phosphosinositides (PPIn), des messagers lipidiques essentiels pour la régulation spatio-temporelle de fonctions cellulaires vitales.La présence de 14 paralogues de MTMs chez l’Homme complique l’analyse de la fonction cellulaire d’un seul membre de la famille. La levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae, dont l’organisation cellulaire est comparable à une cellule humaine, ne compte en revanche qu’un seul homologue de MTM (YMR1), pour lequel nous disposons de mutants de délétion viables.L’expression de MTM1 sauvage ou mutants de patients dans la levure montre seules les myotubularines enzymatiquement actives induisent une morphologie anormale du compartiment lysosomal et un défaut du trafic membranaires endocytique.Nos résultats suggèrent que l’activité phosphatase de MTM1 ne serait pas à elle seule responsable de la XLCNM mais que d’autres mécanismes, tels que les interactions protéiques, pourraient prendre part au développement de la maladie. / Mutations in myotubularin (MTM) genes are responsible for neuromuscular diseases like the XLCNM (MTM1) or the CMT4B (MTMR2 & MTMR13). MTMs dephosphorylate phosphoinositides (PPIn), lipid messengers that play an essential role in the spatio-temporal regulation of critical cellular functions.The presence of 14 MTMs paralogues in Human hinders the analysis of the cellular function of a single MTM family member. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae displays an intracellular organization that is similar to human cells and its genome encodes for only one myotubularin (YMR1) for which deletion mutants are available and viable.The expression of MTM1 either wild-type or mutants from patients, in yeast, shows that only phosphatase-active myotubularins induce an abnormal morphology of the lysosomal compartment and a defect in the endocytic membrane trafficking.Our results suggest that the catalytic activity of MTM1 isn’t single-handedly responsible for XLCNM but that other mecanisms, such as protein-protein interactions, could take part in the development of the disease.

Dopamine transporters (DAT) facilitate high-affinity presynaptic dopamine (DA) reuptake in the central nervous system, and are required to constrain extracellular DA levels and maintain presynaptic DAergic tone. DAT is the primary target for addictive and therapeutic psychostimulants, which require DAT binding to elicit reward. DAT availability at presynaptic terminals ensures its proper function, and is dynamically regulated by endocytic trafficking. My thesis research focused on two fundamental questions: 1) what are the molecular mechanisms that control DAT endocytosis? and 2) what are the mechanism(s) that govern DAT’s post-endocytic fate? Using pharmacological and genetic approaches, I discovered that a non-receptor tyrosine kinase, activated by cdc42 kinase 1 (Ack1), stabilizes DAT plasma membrane expression by negatively regulating DAT endocytosis. I found that stimulated DAT endocytosis absolutely requires Ack1 inactivation. Moreover, I was able to restore normal DAT endocytosis to a trafficking dysregulated DAT coding variant identified in an Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) patient via constitutively activating Ack1. To address what mechanisms govern DAT’s post-endocytic fate, I took advantage of a small molecule labeling approach to directly couple fluorophore to the DAT surface population, and subsequently tracked DAT’s temporal-spatial post-endocytic itinerary in immortalized mesencephalic cells. Using this approach, I discovered that the retromer complex mediates DAT recycling and is required to maintain DAT surface levels via a DAT C-terminal PDZ-binding motif. Taken together, these findings shed considerable new light on DAT trafficking mechanisms, and pave the way for future studies examining the role of regulated DAT trafficking in neuropsychiatric disorders.

The nucleus of eukaryotic cells is a vitally important organelle that sequesters the genetic information of the cell, and protects it with the help of two highly evolved structures, the nuclear envelope (NE) and nuclear pore complexes (NPCs). Together, these two structures mediate the bidirectional trafficking of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm by forming a barrier. NE transmembrane proteins (NETs) embedded in either the outer nuclear membrane (ONM) or the inner nuclear membrane (INM) play crucial roles in both nuclear structure and functions, including: genome architecture, epigenetics, transcription, splicing, DNA replication, nuclear structure, organization and positioning. Furthermore, numerous human diseases are associated with mutations and mislocalization of NETs on the NE. There are still many fundamental questions that are unresolved with NETs, but we focused on two major questions: First, the localization and transport rate of NETs, and second, the transport route taken by NETs to reach the INM. Since NETs are involved with many of the mechanisms used to maintain cellular homeostasis, it is important to quantitatively determine the spatial locations of NETs along the NE to fully understand their role in these vital processes. However, there are limited available approaches for this task, and moreover, these methods provide no information about the translocation rates of NETs between the two membranes. Furthermore, while the trafficking of soluble proteins between the cytoplasm and the nucleus has been well studied over the years, the path taken by NETs into the nucleus remains in dispute. At least four distinct models have been proposed to suggest how transmembrane proteins destined for the INM cross the NE through NPC-dependent or NPC-independent mechanisms, based on specific features found on the soluble domains of INM proteins. In order to resolve these two major questions, it is necessary to employ techniques with the capabilities to observe these dynamics at the nanoscale. Current experimental techniques are unable to break the temporal and spatial resolution barriers required to study these phenomena. Therefore, we developed and modified single-molecule techniques to answer these questions. First, to study the distribution of NETs on the NE, we developed a new single-molecule microscopy method called single-point single-molecule fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (smFRAP), which is able to provide spatial resolution <10 nm and, furthermore, provide previously unattainable information about NET translocation rates from the ONM to INM. Secondly, to examine the transport route used by NETs destined for the INM, we used a single-molecule microscopy technique previously developed in our lab called single-point edge-excitation sub-diffraction (SPEED) microscopy, which provides spatio-temporal resolution of <10 nm precision and 0.4 ms detection time. The major findings from my doctoral research work can be classified into two categories: (i) Technical developments to study NETs in vivo, and (ii) biological findings from employing these microscopy techniques. In regards to technical contributions, we created and validated of a new single-molecule microscopy method, smFRAP, to accurately determine the localization and distribution ratios of NETs on both the ONM and INM in live cells. Second, we adapted SPEED microscopy to study transmembrane protein translocation in vivo. My work has also contributed four main biological findings to the field: first, we determined the in vivo translocation rates for lamin-B receptor (LBR), a major INM protein found in the nucleus of cells. Second, we verified the existence of peripheral channels in the scaffolding of NPCs and, for the first time, directly observed the transit of INM proteins through these channels in live cells. Third, our research has elucidated the roles that both the nuclear localization signal (NLS) and intrinsically disordered (ID) domains play in INM protein transport. Finally, my work has elucidated which transport routes are used by NETs destined to localize in the INM. / Biology