Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Profitable milk production and genetic improvement in dairy herds are largely dependant on fertile cows capable of calving down on an annual basis. Several studies indicate declines in the reproductive performance of Holstein cows over the last 30 years. Calving interval (CI) and services per conception (SPC) are being used by dairy farmers as indicators of the reproductive performance of dairy cows. However, using these traits as cow fertility indicators is problematic as CI is dependent on subsequent calving dates while SPC is strongly linked to inseminator proficiency. The aim of the study is therefore, firstly, to describe alternative fertility traits derived from insemination and calving dates and pregnancy check results. The effects of some non-genetic factors on these traits are discussed. Means±sd for interval traits from calving to first insemination (CFS) and the interval from calving to conception (DO) were respectively 77±30 and 134±74 days while the number of services per conception (SPC) averaged 2.55±1.79. The percentage of first servics occurring within 80 days post-partum (FS80d) and the proportion of cows being confirmed pregnant within 100 (PD100d) and 200 days post-partum (PD200d) were 0.64±0.48, 0.36±0.48 and 0.71±0.45, respectively. Although fertility traits were affected significantly by lactation number, calving year and month, herds (managers) had the largest effect. Fertility is a complex trait, however, the challenge is finding traits that best describe this trait. Genetic parameters for these traits could give an indication of the response to selection in dairy herds. In the second part of this study, genetic parameters and correlations between fertility traits, sourced from standard reproduction management data bases, are analysed for Holstein cows using bivariate linearlinear and linear-threshold animal models. Insemination events (n = 69 181) from 26 645 lactations of 9 046 Holstein cows from 14 herds, calving down during the period from 1991 to 2007, were available. The outcome of each AI event was known. Insemination records were linked to the calving date of each cow, lactation number as well as dam and sire identification. Fertility traits indicating the ability of cows to show heat early in the breeding period, and to become pregnant, were derived. Data were analysed using bivariate linear-linear and linear-threshold animal models with fixed effects being herd (14 levels), year (17 levels), season (4 levels) and lactation number (6 levels). The model included the random effects of animal and animal permanent environment (PE). Heritability estimates ranged from 0.04±0.01 to 0.10±0.02 for FS80d, from 0.07±0.01 to 0.08±0.02 for PD100d and from 0.06±0.04 to 0.08±0.02 for PD200d depending on the two-trait combination. Although heritability estimates of most fertility traits were below 0.10, they were in close agreement with results published by other researchers using linear models. Genetic correlations between different fertility parameters analyzed in this study indicated that it is unlikely that a single characteristic would serve well for selection purposes; instead, combining different traits could be used in selection programmes to improve fertility. Further research in constructing an optimal fertility index is warranted. In the third part of this study, genetic parameters for South African Holstein cows for fertility and production traits were estimated from 2415 lactation records. Two-trait analysis of fertility and milk yield was investigated as a method to estimate fertility breeding values when culling, or selection based on milk yield in early lactation, determines presence or absence of fertility observations in later lactations. Fertility traits were days from calving to first service (CFS), days from calving to conception (DO), percentage cows inseminated within 80d post-partum (FS80d), number of service per conception (SPC), and the binary traits percentage of cows pregnant within 100d and 200d postpartum (PD100d, Pd200d). Milk production traits were 300 day milk, fat and protein yield. For fertility traits, range of estimates of heritability (h2) was 0.006 to 0.08 for linear traits and 0.05 to 0.12 for binary traits. The range for permanent environmental variance (c2) was 0.016 to 0.032. In this study genetic correlations of fertility with milk production traits were unfavourable ranging between −0.93 to 0.76. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Winsgewende melkproduksie en genetiese verbetering in melkkuddes hang grootliks af van vrugbare koeie wat op ‘n jaarlikse basis kalf. Verskeie studies toon dat die reproduksievermoë van Holsteinkoeie oor die afgelope 30 jaar afgeneem het. Melkboere gebruik tussenkalfperiode (TKP) en aantal inseminasies per konsepsie (KIPK) as aanduidings van die reproduksievermoë van melkkoeie. Dit is egter moeilik om hierdie eienskappe as vrugbaarheidseienskappe vir melkkoeie te gebruik omdat TKP afhanklik is van opeenvolgende kalfdatums terwyl KIPK baie sterk gekoppel is aan die inseminasievermoë van die insemineerders. In die eerste gedeelte van die studie word alternatiewe vrugbaarheidseienskappe, wat afgelei is van inseminasie- en kalfdatums en die uitslag van dragtigheidsondersoeke, beskryf. Die invloed van ‘n aantal nie-genetiese faktore op dié eienskappe word ook bespreek. Gemiddeldes±standaard afwykings vir die periode vanaf kalwing tot eerste inseminasie (CFS), die periode van kalwing tot konsepsie (DO) was 77±30 en 134±74 dae onderskeidelik, terwyl die aantal inseminasies per konsepsie (SPC) 2.55±1.79 was. Die persentasie eerste inseminasies wat binne 80 dae na kalwing (FS80d), en die persentasie koeie wat dragtig bevestig is binne 100 (PD100d) en 200 dae na kalwing (PD200d) was 0.64±0.48, 0.36±0.48 en 0.71±0.45, onderskeidelik. Hoewel vrugbaarheidseienskappe betekenisvol beïnvloed is deur laktasienommer, jaar en seisoen van kalwing, het kuddes (bestuurders) die grootste effek op eienskappe gehad. Vrugbaarheid is ‘n ingewikkelde eienskap en die uitdaging is om eienskappe te vind wat dit die beste beskryf. Genetiese parameters vir eienskappe wat oorweeg word sal ‘n aanduiding gee van die seleksieresponse in melkkuddes. In die tweede gedeelte van die studie is genetiese parameters van vrugbaarheidseienskappe en korrelasies tussen dié eienskappe beraam. Eienskappe is bekom vanaf reproduksiebestuursprogramme wat in melkkuddes gebruik word. Al die inseminasierekords (n = 69 181) van 26 645 laktasies van 9 046 Holsteinkoeie van 14 melkkuddes wat tussen 1991 en 2007 gekalf het, was beskikbaar. Die uitslag van elke inseminasie was bekend. Inseminasierekords is met die kalfdatum, laktasienommer, identifkasienommers van die moeder en vader van elke koei, gekoppel. Vrugbaarheidseienskappe wat die vermoë van koeie aandui om vroeg na kalwing op hitte te kom en beset te raak, is verkry. Die data is ontleed deur gebruik te maak van twee-eienskap liniêreliniêr- en liniêr-drempel-diere modelle met vaste effekte kudde (14 vlakke), jaar (17 vlakke), siesoen (4 vlakke) en laktasienommer (6 vlakke). Die modelle het die ewekansige effekte van dier- en dierpermananente omgewingseffkte (PE) ingesluit. Genetiese, diere PE en residuele korrelasies is vervolgens beraam. Oorerflikhede varieer vanaf 0.04±0.01 tot 0.10±0.02 vir FS80d, vanaf 0.07±0.01 tot 0.08±0.02 vir PD100d en vanaf 0.06±0.04 tot 0.08±0.02 vir PD200d, afhangende van die tweeeienskap kombinasie. Ten spyte daarvan dat die oorerflikhede van die meeste vrugbaarseienskappe laer as 0.10 is, is die resultate in ooreenstemming met ander navorsers wat liniëre modelle gebruik het. Genetiese korrelasies tussen verskillende vrugbaarheidseienskappe toon dat daar nie enkel beste eienskap is wat vir seleksiedoeleindes gebruik kan word nie. Dit sou waarskynlik beter wees om verskillende eienskappe te kombineer om die vrugbaarheid in melkkoeie te verbeter. Verdere navorsing is nodig om ‘n optimale vrugbaarheidseienskap te ontwikkel. Dit is belangrik dat die verband tussen reproduksie en melkproduksie vir melkkoeie bepaal word. In die derde gedeelte van die studie is genetiese parameters vir vrugbaarheid- en melkproduksieeienskappe vir Suid Afrikaanse Holsteinkoeie beraam. ‘n Totaal van 2415 laktasierekords was beskikbaar. Vrugbaarheid en melkproduksie is volgens ‘n twee-eienskap analise ontleed as ‘n metode om teelwaardes vir vrugbaarheid te bepaal in gevalle waar die uitskot of seleksie gebaseer op melkproduksie in vroeglaktasie die teenwoordigheid of afwesigheid van vrugbaarheidseienskappe in latere laktasies bepaal. Vrugbaarheidseienskappe was die periode (aantal dae) tussen kalfdatum en eerste inseminasie (CFS), die aantal dae van kalf tot konsepsie (DO), die persentasie koeie wat by 80 dae na kalf vir die eerste keer geïnsemineer was (FS80d), die aantal inseminasies per konsepsie (SPC), en binêre eienskappe van die persentasie koeie wat by 100 dae en 200 dae na kalf beset was (PD100d en PD200d). Melkproduksie-eienskappe was 300-dae melk., vet- en proteïnproduksie. Vir vrugbaarheidseienskappe het die oorerflikheidswaardes (h2) vanaf 0.006 tot 0.08 vir liniêre eienskappe gevarieer en tussen 0.05 tot 0.12 vir binêre eienskappe. Die permanente omgewingsvariansie (c2) het tussen 0.016 tot 0.032 gevarieer. In hierdie studie was die genetiese korrelasies tussen vrugbaarheidseienskappe en melkproduksie-eienskappe ongunstig en het dit tussen −0.93 tot 0.76 gevarieer.

The water footprint is a multidimensional indicator which was created to quantify the total volume of freshwater used for various purposes. With the water footprint it is possible to determine the volume and type of water used directly and indirectly during the production in a given place and time. The data related to the water footprints of products are utilized in the evaluation of the international trade with goods, too (a concept of virtual water used for the analysis of water stress export out of the country which imports water-intensive products). The greatest amount of water is used globally in the agriculture, so the agricultural products are the ones with the highest water footprints. The focus of concern is the water footprint of an agriculture production and the aim of this work is to bring the first results regarding the water footprint of the cow milk in the Czech Republic and also to evaluate a methodology of its calculation. Two dairy farms dealing with a market production of milk from the Liberec region were chosen for the research. The farm Rváčov is oriented to an intensive milk production and on the other hand the farm Bzí is a system with mixed elements of extensive and intensive characters of the dairy production. For the comparison of the milk production effectiveness we have...

Les petits producteurs laitiers font face à de nombreux défis et risques dans l'établissement de leurs systèmes de production, dans un environnement hautement imprévisible marqué par les incertitudes du climat et du marché, par exemple. Mais les défis et les risques peuvent s'avérer encore plus grands quand ils développent leur système à partir de zéro (ex nihilo), une situation courante dans les zones frontières de l'agriculture et dans le cadre de la réforme agraire au Brésil. Trois concepts principaux sont utilisés pour évaluer la dynamique et la capacité d'adaptation des systèmes en fonction des objectifs à atteindre : la résilience, la flexibilité et la vulnérabilité. Cette thèse présente le concept de vulnérabilité lié à des trajectoires de développement de 24 systèmes de production pilotés par des agriculteurs familiaux d'Unaí, Minas Gerais. Nous proposons une évaluation de la vulnérabilité des systèmes de production de lait, basée sur 10 indicateurs construits sur la base des difficultés identifiées par les agriculteurs familiaux. Les indicateurs sont liés aux trois dimensions des trajectoires : dimension familiale (3 indicateurs), technique (4 indicateurs) et financière (3 indicateurs). Les valeurs d'indicateurs de vulnérabilité entre les différentes années pour le même événement (sècheresse en 2007 et 2011), montrent que la plupart des systèmes de production ont vu leur vulnérabilité baisser au fil du temps. Les indicateurs de vulnérabilité liés à la dimension de la famille sont très stables. Un système peut être vulnérable à la même perturbation dans une période et pas dans l'autre, et vice versa. En perspective de ce travail, nous envisageons de présenter les résultats aux agriculteurs et aux autres acteurs de la filière laitière d'Unaí, pour provoquer une discussion entre eux sur les moyens de "construire" un système de production performant sans augmenter la vulnérabilité du système. / Small dairy farmers face many challenges and risks in developing their production systems, in a highly unpredictable environment marked by uncertainties in climate and market, for example. But the challenges and risks are even greater when they develop their system from scratch (ex nihilo), a common situation in agricultural frontier areas and in the context of land reform in Brazil. Three main concepts are used to assess the dynamics and adaptability of systems, depending on the objectives : resilience , flexibility and vulnerability. This thesis presents the concept of vulnerability related to trajectories of development, as it was applied to assess 24 smallholder farming systems in the region of Unaí (Minas Gerais, Brazil). We propose a framework to evaluate the vulnerability of milk production systems, based on 10 indicators derived from the types of “difficulties” faced along the farm development trajectory as identified by smallholder farmers. These 10 indicators relate to three key dimensions of a trajectory : the family dimension (3 indicators), the technical dimension (4 indicators) and the financial dimension (3 indicators). By comparing values of indicators of vulnerability between different years for the same disturbance (a drought which occurred both in 2007 and 2011), many production systems decreased level of vulnerability over time. There is a great stability of the indicators related to family dimension. The vulnerability of five production systems decreased between 2007 and 2011, but with different amplitudes. A system may be vulnerable to a given disturbance at one moment, not vulnerable at another moment, or vice versa. In the near future, we will present our results to farmers and other actors in the milk production chain in Unaí, with the hope of stimulating discussion among them about the best way to "build" a production system that performs well without increasing the vulnerability of the system.

Experimento I: Foram utilizadas 60 borregas da raça Santa Inês com o objetivo de avaliar os efeitos de três taxas de crescimento até os 7 meses de idade. Os tratamentos foram delineados visando obter alta taxa de crescimento (ATC), moderada taxa de crescimento (MTC) e baixa taxa de crescimento (BTC). Foram avaliados o consumo de matéria seca, o ganho de peso corporal e as concentrações séricas de progesterona para a detecção da idade à puberdade. Foram verificados efeitos lineares (p<0,01) para o peso corporal e metabólico, sendo os maiores valores encontrados para os animais do tratamento ATC. Efeito linear (p<0,01) foi verificado para o ganho médio diário (GMD) sendo de 0,182; 0,156 e 0,136 kg/dia para os tratamentos ATC, MTC e BTC respectivamente. Borregas pertencentes ao tratamento ATC apresentaram maior conversão alimentar sendo os valores para o tratamento ATC de 6,1; MTC de 7,1 e BTC de 9,2 kg MS/ kg de ganho de peso. Verificou-se diferença (p<0,01) quanto a porcentagem de animais que atingiram a puberdade sendo o tratamento MTC com o maior número de borregas púberes até os 7 meses de idade (60%), seguida dos tratamentos ATC (45%) e BTC (15%)com peso médio de 39,3 kg de peso corporal, sendo 70% do peso adulto. Experimento II: As borregas utilizadas no experimento 1 com 37 Kg de PC entraram em estação de monta e após o parto receberam uma única dieta, sendo blocadas de acordo com o peso e dias de lactação. Observou-se efeito quadrático (p<0,01) na produção de leite em 3h (137,9; 150,1 e 104,4 g), efeito quadrático (p<0,05) para LCG (167,2; 178,9 e 129,4) e efeito quadrático (p<0,03) LCGP (216,5; 140,5 e 162,7). Os teores de gordura (9,8; 8,9 e 8,3%) e de proteína (4,2; 4,2 e 4,6 apresentaram efeitos lineares sendo (p=0,01) para gordura e (p<0,01) para proteína. Experimento III: Os objetivos deste experimento foram avaliar o efeito da inclusão de bagaço de cana-de-açúcar in natura (BIN) sobre o consumo e a digestibilidade aparente dos nutrientes, balanço de nitrogênio e os parâmetros ruminais de cordeiros Santa Inês. Quatro cordeiros providos de cânula ruminal com peso corporal (PC) médio inicial de 30kg foram alojados individualmente em gaiolas para ensaios de metabolismo. O tratamento controle positivo (CONT) consistia de uma ração de alto concentrado contendo de 10% de feno de coastcross (Cynodon sp.) na MS, sendo os demais tratamentos níveis crescentes de BIN em 10, 20 e 30% da MS, constituindo os tratamentos 10BC, 20BC e 30BC. As rações experimentais foram isonitrogenadas (13,75±0,25% PB). Não verificou-se efeito de tratamento (p>0,05) sobre o consumo de MS, MO, e PB em kg/dia e g/kg de PC 0,75; apenas sobre consumo de FDN com efeito linear (p< 0,01). O balanço de nitrogênio, assim como a concentração de acetato, propionato, butirato, concentração total de AGCC, amônia no fluido ruminal e a de digestibilidade aparente da MS, MO, PB e FDN não foram afetados pelos tratamentos. / Trial I: Sixty Santa Ines ewe lambs were used to evaluate the effects of three growing rates until 7 months of age. Treatments were defined to achieve high (HGR), moderate (MGR) and low (LGR) growing rates. The dry matter intake and average daily gain (ADG) were evaluated, well as serum levels of progesterone in order to detect the age of puberty. Linear effects (P<0.01) to body weight (BW) with values being 59.5, 61.4, and 58.0 to HGR, MGR and LGR, respectively. Linear effects (P<0.01) was also observed for average daily gain with values being 0.182, 0.156, and 0.136 kg/day, for HGR, MGR and LGR, respectively. The feed:gain ratio showed a linear effects (p<0.02) according to raw sugarcane bagasse inclusion in diet with values being 6.1, 7.1 (M) and 9.2 kgDM/kg BW for HGR, MGR and LGR, respectively. Linear effects (p<0.01) was observed for the percentage of animals of ewe lambs the reached puberty at 7 months of age, showing highest values for MGR (60%), followed by HGR (45%) and LGR (15%) treatment. Trial II: The same ewe lambs of Experiment 1 were bred at 37 kg of BW and after lambing they received a unique diet. The ewe lambs were blocked according to body weight and days in milking. According to the energy density increase in the diet, quadratic effects (p<0.01) was observed on milk production recorded in a 3-hour interval (137.9; 150.1 and 104.4 g), fat corrected milk (167.2, 178.9 and 129.4 g) and fat and protein corrected milk (216.5, 140.5, 162.7g). Fat (9.77, 8.92 and 8.35%) and protein (4.2, 4.2, and 4.6%) showed linear effects (P=0.01) for fat and (P<0.01) for protein. Trial III: The aim of this study was to evaluate the inclusion of raw sugarcane bagasse (RSB) on dry matter intake and apparent digestibility of nutrients, nitrogen balance and ruminal parameters of Santa Ines ram lambs. Four ruminally fistulated ram lambs averaging 30 kg of BW were placed in metabolism crates. The control treatment (CONT) consisted of a high concentrate diet with 10% of coastcross (Cynodon sp.) hay in the dietary DM and the others treatments consisted of 10, 20 and, 30% of RBS in the dietary DM. The diets were formulated to provide similar concentration of crude protein (13.75±0.25%). No effects were observed for DMI, OM, and CP in kg/day and g/kg of BW0.75. Linear effects (p<0.02) was observed for NDF intake according RBS inclusion. Variables, as well as total SCFA, acetate, propionate, and butyrate concentrations. Ruminal ammonia and apparent nutrient digestibility also did not differ among treatments.

Foram realizados dois experimentos visando avaliar diferentes estratégias de vedação para silos do tipo trincheira. No experimento I, objetivou-se avaliar as características fermentativas, composição química e perdas de matéria seca e de matéria orgânica em silagens de milho vedadas com diferentes tipos de filmes plásticos e com ou sem a adição de camada de bagaço de cana. Os tratamentos utilizados foram: ETNC: filme dupla face de polietileno com 200 ?m de espessura; ETC: filme dupla face de polietileno com 200 ?m de espessura recoberto com camada de 10 cm de bagaço de cana e ET+ADNC: filme co-extrusado dupla face de poliamida e polietileno, com 120 ?m de espessura. O delineamento experimental foi de blocos casualizados. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de variância e suas médias foram comparadas pelo teste Tukey, a 5% de signigicância. A quantidade de silagem deteriorada foi menor para o tratamento ETC, enquanto que os demais tratamentos foram semelhantes entre si. Não foi observada diferença significativa entre os tratamentos para a composição bromatológica, entretanto, observou-se diferença para entre os diferentes pontos amostrados (TL: topo lateral, TC: topo central e C: centro) para as variáveis MS, FDA, amido, hemicelulose e DVIVMO, sendo que os piores resultados foram encontrados nas regiões periféricas (TL e TC) dos silo. Os tratamentos não influenciaram na contagem de microrganismo (BAL: bactérias ácido láticas, FF: fungos filamentosos e LEV: leveduras), porém, com relação ao local de coleta houve diferença para BAL e FF. Como esperado, a população de FF foi maior na periferia dos silos, enquanto que a de BAL foi maior no centro. A contagem de leveduras não sofreu influência do tratamento e local de amostragem. No experimento II, objetivou-se avaliar o desempenho animal em função da estratégia de vedação de silagens de milho. Foram utilizadas 15 vacas distribuídas aleatoriamente em cinco quadrados latinos 3x3, com períodos de 21 dias. Os animais foram mantidos em sistema de confinamento Tie-Stall com baias individuais e alimentadas duas vezes ao dia. Os tratamentos foram definidos de acordo com o método de vedação: ETNC, ETC e ET+ADNC. As dietas foram formuladas para serem isoproteicas, com 53% de silagem de milho (% MS). As porções deterioradas das silagens foram descartadas diariamente, as rações foram preparadas utilizando apenas silagem não deteriorada. O consumo de matéria seca, a produção e composição do leite foram determinados entre os dias 15 e 21 de cada período experimental. Os dados foram analisados utilizando o Proc Mixed, do software estatístico SAS. Os tratamentos ET+ADNC e ETC apresentaram maior eficiência energética enquanto que os tratamentos ET+ADNC e ETNC tiveram tendência de maior produção de leite corrigido para 3,5% de gordura e excreção de energia no leite; da mesma forma, a excreção de proteína no leite também foi aumentada. O tratamento ETC não promoveu melhoras no valor nutritivo das silagens, enquanto que os tratamentos ET+ADNC e ETNC apresentaram tendência em maximizar o desempenho das vacas. / Two experiments were conducted to evaluate different strategies to cover silos. The experiment I evaluate the chemical fermentation profile, chemical composition and losses of dry matter and organic matter in corn silage covered with different types of plastic film and with or without the added layer of sugarcane bagasse. The treatments were: ETNC: 200?m black-on-white polyethylene film; ETC: black-on-white polyethylene film plus sugarcane bagasse over the film and ET+ADNC: 125?m polyamide/polyethylene coextruded film. The experimental design was randomized blocks. The data were subjected to analysis of variance and their means were compared by Tukey test at 5% significance. The amount of spoiled silage was lower for treatment ETC, while the other treatments were similar. There was no significant difference between treatments for the chemical composition, although differences were observed between different sampling sites (TL: side wall, TC: top center and C: bottom) for the variables DM, ADF, starch, hemicellulose and IVOMD, while the worst results were found in the peripheral regions (TL and TC) of the silo. Treatments did not affect the count of microorganisms (BAL: lactic acid bacteria, FF: filamentous fungi: LEV: yeasts), however the FF acount was greater in the TL and TC, while BAL was higher in the C. The yeast count was not influenced by treatment or sampling site. In the experiment II was evaluated performance of dairy cows fed corn silage covered with different sealing strategies. Fifteen lactating cows were randomly assigned to 5 replicated 3×3 Latin square design with 21-d periods. Animals were housed in sand-bedded tie-stall barn and individually fed ad libitum to achieve approximately 10% refusals twice daily. Treatments were defined according to the method of sealing: ETNC, ETC and ET+ADNC. Diets were formulated to be isonitrogenous with 53% corn silage (DM%) to meet the nutrient requirements of a dairy cow producing 35 kg×d-1 of milk. The deteriorated inedible silage was discarded every day and only edible silage was used to prepare the total mixed rations. Dry matter intake (DMI) and milk yield were recorded from d-15 to d-21 in each period, as well milk composition. Data were analyzed using the Mixed procedure of SAS. Treatments ET+ADNC and ETC showed higher energy efficiency while treatments ET+ADNC and ETNC tended to higher milk yield and energy excretion in milk, as well the excretion of protein in the milk was also increased. Contrary to expected, the ETC treatment did not improve the nutritive value of silages. In conclusion, treatments ET+ADNC and ETNC tended to maximize the performance of dairy cows.

Com o objetivo de investigar o impacto dos eventos ocorridos antes e após o parto sobre a produção de leite no pico, produção de leite na lactação (305 dias) e concepção ao primeiro serviço na lactação atual e na lactação posterior, foram coletados dados zootécnicos e sanitários de 2.084 lactações, provenientes de 665 vacas da raça Holandesa, de um rebanho comercial do estado de São Paulo. Os escores de condição corporal (na secagem e ao parto), a época do parto, o número de dias do período seco, a ocorrência de doenças, as produções de leite (no pico e na lactação) e a concepção ao primeiro serviço foram registradas. A análise estatística foi realizada por meio de regressão múltipla e logística. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que a época do parto (verão), a duração do período seco, o escore de condição corporal à secagem, o logaritmo natural da primeira contagem de células somáticas após o parto, a ocorrência de retenção de placenta e o deslocamento de abomaso afetaram negativamente a produção de leite no pico da lactação atual, com efeitos distintos em função da ordem de lactação. Os mesmos eventos, incluindo a ocorrência de mastite clínica até os 60 dias pós-parto, afetaram negativamente a produção de leite aos 305 dias da lactação atual. Quanto à concepção ao primeiro serviço da lactação atual, os resultados obtidos revelaram que a ordem de lactação, a época do parto (verão) e o escore de condição corporal ao parto afetaram negativamente a concepção, com efeitos diferentes em função da ordem de lactação. Quanto à lactação posterior, os principais eventos que afetaram a produção de leite no pico foram: a época do parto (verão), o escore de condição corporal à secagem, o logaritmo natural da primeira contagem de células somáticas, a ocorrência de mastite clínica, o número de casos de mastite sub-clínica durante a lactação e a cetose. Enquanto para a produção de leite aos 305 dias da lactação posterior, os principais fatores que afetaram foram: o escore de condição corporal à secagem, a ocorrência de cetose e a mastite clínica. Em relação à concepção ao primeiro serviço da lactação posterior, os principais eventos que afetaram tal variável foram: o escore de condição corporal à secagem, o número de casos de mastite sub-clínica durante a lactação, a ocorrência de pneumonia e o deslocamento de abomaso. Contudo, o coeficiente de determinação (R2) para os eventos responsáveis por alterações na produção de leite no pico (R2=0,08), produção de leite aos 305 dias (R2=0,06) e concepção ao primeiro serviço (R2=0,008) da lactação posterior foi baixo. / The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of events occurred pre and postpartum upon milk production at peak, milk production during lactation (305 days) and conception at first service in the current and subsequent lactation of dairy cows. Data related to production and sanity of 2,084 lactations were collected from 665 Holstein cows of a commercial herd from Sao Paulo state. Body condition scores (at drying off and at calving), calving season, dry period length, occurrence of diseases, milk productions (at peak and during lactation) and conception at first service were registered. Statistical analysis was accomplished using multiple and logistic regression. Results showed that calving season (summer), dry period length, body condition score at drying off, natural logarithm of the first somatic cells count (SCC) after calving, occurrence of retained placenta and displacement of abomasum affected negatively milk production at peak in the current lactation, with different effects in function of lactation order. The same events, including the occurrence of clinical mastitis until 60 days post-calving, affected negatively milk production during the current lactation (305 days). Relating to conception at first service in the current lactation, results showed that lactation order, calving season (summer) and body condition score at calving affected negatively the conception, with different effects due to lactation order. Regarding the subsequent lactation, the main events that affected milk production at peak were: calving season (summer), body condition score at drying off, natural logarithm of the first SCC, occurrence of clinical mastitis, number of cases of sub-clinical mastitis during lactation and ketosis. The main factors that affected milk production of the subsequent lactation (305 days) were: body condition score at drying off, occurrence of ketosis and clinical mastitis. In relation to conception at first service in the subsequent lactation, the events that influenced it were: body condition score at drying off, number of cases of sub-clinical mastitis during lactation, occurrence of pneumonia and displacement of abomasum. However, determination coefficients (R2) of the events responsible for impacts on milk production at peak (R2=0.08), milk production during lactation (305 days) (R2=0.06) and conception at first service (R2=0.008) of the subsequent lactation were low.

Os recursos hídricos são objeto de constante discussão na tentativa de encontrar a maneira mais adequada de manejá-los, de forma a não prejudicar o meio ambiente, e também a vida na Terra. A política de pagamento por serviços ambientais (PSA) entra nesse contexto, na tentativa de estimular os produtores rurais a aderirem, com um maior grau de conscientização à legislação ambiental vigente. Além disso, busca-se uma forma de não prejudicar os proprietários de pequenas propriedades rurais, que tendem a ser os mais afetados pelas adequações ambientais que se fazem necessárias. Um olhar sobre os sistemas de PSA existentes no Brasil evidencia que o pagamento oferecido por essa política aos produtores é relativamente baixo e, consequentemente, pouco interessante. Portanto, faz-se necessária uma evolução no conceito de PSA, de modo a criar uma perspectiva econômica atrativa para o produtor rural e, ao mesmo tempo, incentivar sua adesão. Assim, este trabalho propôs a ideia de simular o efeito da inclusão de extensionistas como forma de incentivo ao ingresso em um PSA denominado \"Programa Conservador das Águas\", na cidade de Extrema, MG. O trabalho foi realizado visando à produção de leite e teve por base os resultados obtidos no Projeto \"Balde Cheio\", baseado no treinamento de extensionistas e que apresenta evolução significativa de resultados em propriedades rurais, durante e após o tempo de participação desse profissional no projeto. Para isso, foram analisados dados zootécnicos e econômicos de dezessete propriedades rurais produtoras de leite e participantes do Projeto \"Balde Cheio\", com tempo de participação igual ou superior a quatro anos. Os resultados oriundos dessas propriedades foram utilizados para o desenvolvimento de simulação de dados evolutivos de produtividade, considerando, especificamente, os índices zootécnicos e econômicos de propriedades rurais da sub-bacia do Ribeirão das Posses, em Extrema, MG. Verificou-se o potencial de aumento da produtividade e grande melhora dos resultados econômicos, a partir da assistência técnica efetuada, incluindo a adesão ao PSA na região. Simulou-se também, o efeito do aumento da produção de leite na arrecadação de impostos, demonstrando repercussões desta iniciativa para o Estado de Minas Gerais. Concluiu-se, a partir dos dados levantados, que o aumento de produtividade gerado pela inclusão de extensionistas à política de PSA permitiria pagar os custos desses profissionais e gerar aumento da arrecadação para o Estado e o município. / Finding the most adequate way to manage water resources without harming the environment and life on Earth has long been the aim of frequent discussions among professionals from different areas. The current policy of payment for environmental services (PES) is an important part of this discussion, and a more attractive form of raising awareness and getting smallholder farmers to adhere to the current environmental legislation. Equally important is the understanding and addressing these farmers needs, usually the most affected by requirements of environmental suitability. Currently, the low sums practiced by the existing PES in Brazil make it rather unattractive for them, calling for a rethinking of its concept in order to make it financially more attractive and, thus, to encourage farmers to adhere. Therefore, this study aimed to simulate the effects of including rural extensionists in a PES as an incentive for the adherence of farmers, entitled Conservative Water Programme, in the county of Extrema, MG. The research was based on the milk production, using results obtained in the Full Bucket Project, based on training rural extensionists and showing significant improvement for dairy farmers, during and after the period in which he took part in the project. For this simulation, one analysed the zootechnical and economic data from seventeen dairy farms, four-year-long (or more) members of the Full Buket Project (Projeto Balde Cheio). The results obtained were used on the development of data simulation of productivity based on the specific zootechnical and economic results from the dairy farms of the sub-basin \'Ribeirão das Posses\', in Extrema, MG. The results provided evidences that there is indeed the potential for an increase in milk yield, and for improving economic results, after technical assistance was provided, including the adherence to the PES in that region. The increase in milk yield stimulated an increase in taxes collection, also showing its positive repercussion for the state of Minas Gerais. Based on the findings, one can conclude that the inclusion of rural extensionists in the PES policy would increase the milk productivity, covering the costs of these professionals and increasing the tax collection for the state and the county.

A transformação da pecuária brasileira na última década é resultado da adoção de novas técnicas de produção. Embora o Brasil esteja ocupando lugar de destaque no mercado mundial de produção e exportação de carne, sabe-se que a produtividade encontra-se, ainda, aquém do esperado. A exploração de raças zebuínas, que representam mais de 80% do rebanho, em sistemas extensivos a pasto, contribui para a baixa produtividade. Três fatores influenciam a escolha da raça e sistema de produção mais adequados: o ambiente a ser explorado, as fontes de alimento disponíveis e o mercado a ser atendido. O emprego do cruzamento, explorando a diferença entre raças, pode melhorar o desempenho do rebanho e contribuir com a eficiência de todo sistema de produção. Os objetivos deste estudo foram avaliar o desempenho prédesmame, as exigências e a eficiência do par vaca/bezerro de três sistemas de produção: vacas Nelore (NL) com bezerros NL (10), vacas NL com bezerros Angus x Nelore (ANL: 9) e vacas ANL e Simental x Nelore (SNL) com bezerros do cruzamento de três raças (TC: 20). As vacas foram alimentadas, individualmente, com dieta total contendo 11.3% PB e 2,23 Mcal EM/kg de matéria seca (MS). A partir dos 38 dias de idade, os bezerros tiveram acesso, ad libitum, à silagem de milho. Vacas e bezerros foram pesados a cada 14 dias, quando a quantidade de MS era ajustada para manter o peso e o escore de condição corporal (ECC) constantes. As vacas NL lactantes eram mais leves (P = 0,05) e apresentaram menor (P = 0,03) ECC do que as vacas cruzadas (ANL, SNL): 494 ± 10 kg e 5,0 ± 0,02 vs. 522 ± 9 kg e 5,1 ± 0,02. A produção de leite foi determinada aos 42, 98, 126 e 180 dias pós-parto, utilizando a técnica de pesagem dos bezerros antes e após a mamada. A ingestão de energia metabolizável (IEM) para manter o peso constante foi menor (P < 0,0001) para as vacas NL (195 ± 3,0 kcal·kg- 0,75·d-1) comparadas às vacas cruzadas (229 ± 2,9 kcal·kg-0,75·d-1). O grupo genético dos bezerros não influenciou a IEM das vacas NL. Os bezerros foram abatidos aos 190 dias de idade, quando a composição corporal foi estimada, a partir da composição do corte da 9-10-11ª costelas e, a energia retida calculada. Os bezerros NL foram mais leves (P = 0,0006) ao desmame e depositaram menos energia (P = 0,0005) no corpo vazio do que os bezerros cruzados ANL e TC: 169 ± 7,9 kg e 295 ± 23 Mcal para os bezerros NL, 212 ± 8,3 kg e 422 ± 24 Mcal para os bezerros ANL e 230 ± 5,6 kg e 449 ± 16 Mcal para o grupo TC. O par vaca/bezerro NL apresentou menor (P = 0,07) IEM total (190 dias pré-desmame) do que os pares NL/ANL e o grupo de vacas e bezerros cruzados: 3757 ± 78, 3970 ± 83, 4597 ± 56 Mcal, respectivamente. A diferença entre os dois grupos de vacas NL é representada pelo maior (P = 0,005) consumo de silagem dos bezerros ANL comparados aos bezerros NL. O grupo genético do bezerro não influenciou a produção de leite das vacas NL, que produziram menos leite (828 ± 46 kg; P < 0,0001) do que as vacas cruzadas (1244 ± 45 kg) em 190 dias de lactação. A eficiência energética, definida como kcal de energia retida no ganho dos bezerros/IEM total do par vaca/bezerro, foi maior (P = 0,003) nos grupos com bezerros cruzados (ANL, TC): 78 ± 4,9 para o par vaca/bezerro NL, 97 ± 3,5 para o grupo de vacas cruzadas com bezerros TC e 107 ± 5,1 kcal/Mcal para o grupo de vacas NL com bezerros ANL. Nas condições do estudo, o emprego do cruzamento aumentou a eficiência do par vaca/bezerro. Entretanto, a avaliação de todo sistema de produção deve considerar a taxa reprodutiva, o desempenho e eficiência pós-desmame e, finalmente, a qualidade de carcaça. / The Brazilian livestock sector has been changing, propelled by the introduction of new technologies. Although Brazil has an important position at the international market, as the lead exporter, productivity may be greatly enhanced. Zebu breeds and their crosses represent almost 80% of the cattle herd, which is produced mainly on pasture. This production system has lower productivity than systems with more intensive feeding. The breed and the production system should be matched to: the environment, the available feed resources, and the market demands. The difference between or among breeds could be used in crossbreeding programs to increase cow\'s herd productivity and the efficiency of the whole production system. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the preweaning performance, cows\' energy requirements and cow/calf efficiency of Nellore (NL) calves from NL cows (10), crossbred (Angus sired) calves from NL cows (ANL: 9), and three-breed-cross calves from Angus x Nellore (ANL) and Simmental x Nellore (SNL) cows (TC: 20). Cows were individually fed a total mixed diet containing 11.3% CP and 2.23 Mcal ME/kg of dry matter (DM). At 38 days of age, corn silage was available to calves ad libitum. At 14 days intervals cows and calves were weighed and the amount of DM was adjusted to keep body weight (BW) and body condition score (BCS) of cows constant. The NL lactating cows were lighter (P = 0.05) and had lower (P = 0.03) BCS than crossbreds (ANL, SNL); 494 ± 10 kg and 5.0 ± 0.02 vs. 522 ± 9 kg and 5.1 ± 0.02. Milk production at 42, 98, 126, and 180 days postpartum were measured using the weigh-suckle-weigh technique. The NL cows had lower (195 ± 3.0 kcal·kg-0.75·d-1; P < 0.0001) metabolizable energy intake (MEI) adjusted to zero BW change than crossbreds (229 ± 2.9 kcal·kg-0.75·d-1). Calf breed type did not affect the MEI of NL cows. At 190 days of age calves were slaughtered and their body composition estimated using 9-10-11th rib section to obtain energy deposition. The NL calves were lighter (P = 0.0006) at weaning and had lower (P = 0.0005) retained energy (RE) than ANL and TC calves: 169 ± 7.9 kg and 295 ± 23 Mcal for NL, 212 ± 8.3 kg and 422 ± 24 Mcal for ANL, and 230 ± 5.6 kg and 449 ± 16 Mcal for TC calves. Straightbred NL cow/calf pair had lower (P = 0.07) total MEI (190 days) than NL/ANL and crossbred cow/calf pairs: 3757 ± 78, 3970 ± 83, and 4597 ± 56 Mcal, respectively. That difference is represented by calf silage consumption; the ANL calves had greater (P = 0,005) MEI from silage than NL calves. Calf breed type did not have effect on milk production of NL cows, which produced less milk (828 ± 46 kg; P < 0.0001) than crossbred cows (1244 ± 45 kg) during 190 days in milk. Cow/calf pairs with crossbred calves (ANL, TC) had greater (P = 0.003) energetic efficiency (kcal of RE/Mcal of total MEI by cow/calf) than straightbred NL pairs: 78 ± 4.9 for NL cow/calf pairs, 97 ± 3.5 for crossbred cows with TC calves, and 107 ± 5.1 kcal/Mcal for NL/ANL cow/calf pairs. In the conditions of this study, the crossbreeding systems have been evaluated increased the cow/calf efficiency. However, evaluation of whole production system must consider reproductive rate, postweaning productivity and efficiency and subsequently, carcass quality.

O objetivo do presente trabalho foi verificar se as perdas na produção de leite devidas ao aumento do número de células somáticas do leite (CCS) são proporcionais à produção (dependentes dela), ou absolutas (independentes dela). Além disso, pesquisou-se a partir de que valor de CCS as vacas começam a diminuir a produção de leite. Para concretizar o objetivo deste trabalho foram realizados dois estudos. No primeiro foram usadas 7.756 observações, colhidas mensalmente de um único rebanho, durante o período de setembro de 2000 a junho de 2002, enquanto que no segundo utilizaram-se 13.725 observações, colhidas mensalmente de 6 rebanhos, durante o período de janeiro de 2001 a junho de 2002. Em ambos os casos o modelo utilizado para curva de lactação foi baseado na função gama incompleta; no primeiro estudo foram considerados os efeitos de ordem de lactação, época do parto, ocorrência de doenças no periparto e escore de condição corporal ao parto, e no segundo, os efeitos de ordem de lactação, época do parto e rebanho. A CCS foi incluída nesse modelo de duas formas: como fator multiplicativo (representando perdas relativas) e como fator aditivo (representando perdas absolutas). A escolha do melhor modelo foi baseada no critério de informação de Schwarz (BIC). Nos dois estudos concluiu-se que as perdas na produção de leite são absolutas e variam apenas com a ordem de lactação (vacas primíparas e multíparas). No primeiro estudo os dados mostraram que as perdas iniciam a partir de 14.270 células/mL, e para cada aumento unitário na escala do logaritmo natural a partir desse valor estimam -se perdas de 184 e 869 g/dia para vacas primíparas e multíparas, respectivamente. No segundo, estimou-se que as perdas começam a ocorrer a partir de 17.000 células/mL e são de 238 e 868 g/dia para vacas primíparas e multíparas, respectivamente, para cada aumento unitário na escala do logaritmo natural a partir desse valor. / The objective of the present study was to evaluate whether milk yield losses due to increasing in milk somatic cells count (SCC) are proportional to milk yield (dependent of it), or absolute (independent of it). Also, it was investigated starting from which value of SCC the losses become evident. To achieve the objective of this research, two studies were done. In the first one, 7,756 observations were used, collected monthly from a single herd, from September/2000 up to June/2002, while in the second one, 13,725 observations were used, collected monthly from 6 herds, from January/2001 up to June/2002. In both cases, the analysis model for lactation curve was based upon the incomplete gamma function; in the first study the effects of lactation order, calving season, peripartum disorder incidence and body condition score at calving were considered, and in the second one, the effects of lactation order, calving season and herd were added. Somatic cells count entered in that model in two ways: as multiplicative factor (representing relative losses) and as additive factor (representing absolute losses). The best model was chosen based on the information criteria of Schwarz (BIC). In both studies, it was concluded that losses are absolute and just vary with the lactation order (primiparous and multiparous cows). In the first case, losses become evident starting from 14,270 cells/mL, and for each unitary increase in the natural logarithm scale from that value, there are losses of 184 and 869 g/day for primiparous and multiparous cows, respectively. In the second study, it was estimated that losses start from 17,000 cells/mL and are of 238 and 868 g/day for primiparous and multiparous cows, respectively, for each unitary increase in the natural logarithm scale from that value.

Com o objetivo de investigar o impacto dos eventos ocorridos antes e após o parto sobre a produção de leite no pico, produção de leite na lactação (305 dias) e concepção ao primeiro serviço na lactação atual e na lactação posterior, foram coletados dados zootécnicos e sanitários de 2.084 lactações, provenientes de 665 vacas da raça Holandesa, de um rebanho comercial do estado de São Paulo. Os escores de condição corporal (na secagem e ao parto), a época do parto, o número de dias do período seco, a ocorrência de doenças, as produções de leite (no pico e na lactação) e a concepção ao primeiro serviço foram registradas. A análise estatística foi realizada por meio de regressão múltipla e logística. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que a época do parto (verão), a duração do período seco, o escore de condição corporal à secagem, o logaritmo natural da primeira contagem de células somáticas após o parto, a ocorrência de retenção de placenta e o deslocamento de abomaso afetaram negativamente a produção de leite no pico da lactação atual, com efeitos distintos em função da ordem de lactação. Os mesmos eventos, incluindo a ocorrência de mastite clínica até os 60 dias pós-parto, afetaram negativamente a produção de leite aos 305 dias da lactação atual. Quanto à concepção ao primeiro serviço da lactação atual, os resultados obtidos revelaram que a ordem de lactação, a época do parto (verão) e o escore de condição corporal ao parto afetaram negativamente a concepção, com efeitos diferentes em função da ordem de lactação. Quanto à lactação posterior, os principais eventos que afetaram a produção de leite no pico foram: a época do parto (verão), o escore de condição corporal à secagem, o logaritmo natural da primeira contagem de células somáticas, a ocorrência de mastite clínica, o número de casos de mastite sub-clínica durante a lactação e a cetose. Enquanto para a produção de leite aos 305 dias da lactação posterior, os principais fatores que afetaram foram: o escore de condição corporal à secagem, a ocorrência de cetose e a mastite clínica. Em relação à concepção ao primeiro serviço da lactação posterior, os principais eventos que afetaram tal variável foram: o escore de condição corporal à secagem, o número de casos de mastite sub-clínica durante a lactação, a ocorrência de pneumonia e o deslocamento de abomaso. Contudo, o coeficiente de determinação (R2) para os eventos responsáveis por alterações na produção de leite no pico (R2=0,08), produção de leite aos 305 dias (R2=0,06) e concepção ao primeiro serviço (R2=0,008) da lactação posterior foi baixo. / The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of events occurred pre and postpartum upon milk production at peak, milk production during lactation (305 days) and conception at first service in the current and subsequent lactation of dairy cows. Data related to production and sanity of 2,084 lactations were collected from 665 Holstein cows of a commercial herd from Sao Paulo state. Body condition scores (at drying off and at calving), calving season, dry period length, occurrence of diseases, milk productions (at peak and during lactation) and conception at first service were registered. Statistical analysis was accomplished using multiple and logistic regression. Results showed that calving season (summer), dry period length, body condition score at drying off, natural logarithm of the first somatic cells count (SCC) after calving, occurrence of retained placenta and displacement of abomasum affected negatively milk production at peak in the current lactation, with different effects in function of lactation order. The same events, including the occurrence of clinical mastitis until 60 days post-calving, affected negatively milk production during the current lactation (305 days). Relating to conception at first service in the current lactation, results showed that lactation order, calving season (summer) and body condition score at calving affected negatively the conception, with different effects due to lactation order. Regarding the subsequent lactation, the main events that affected milk production at peak were: calving season (summer), body condition score at drying off, natural logarithm of the first SCC, occurrence of clinical mastitis, number of cases of sub-clinical mastitis during lactation and ketosis. The main factors that affected milk production of the subsequent lactation (305 days) were: body condition score at drying off, occurrence of ketosis and clinical mastitis. In relation to conception at first service in the subsequent lactation, the events that influenced it were: body condition score at drying off, number of cases of sub-clinical mastitis during lactation, occurrence of pneumonia and displacement of abomasum. However, determination coefficients (R2) of the events responsible for impacts on milk production at peak (R2=0.08), milk production during lactation (305 days) (R2=0.06) and conception at first service (R2=0.008) of the subsequent lactation were low.