Solid-state nanopore sensors are an emerging platform for performing single-molecule characterization of biomolecules such as DNA. With the advent of Controlled Breakdown (CBD), creating a simple, tunable, ultra-low concentration sensing device in situ has enabled their direct integration with a host of platforms. The simplicity and sensitivity in performing measurements allows nanopore-based technologies to find uses which enhance existing methods. One such promising avenue for nanopore-based sensing is in the detection of infectious diseases, where early and accurate identification of the causative pathogen is essential for successful patient outcomes. Conventional assays, while effective, often have limitations in speed, cost, or target sensitivity, and may benefit from nanopore sensing approaches. However, solid-state nanopores currently lack the ability to discriminate between biomarkers sharing identical size and charge densities, such as sequentially-heterogeneous strands of DNA. Addressing the weakness of both conventional assays and nanopores could come from combining nanopore sensing with the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a well-established and highly-selective nucleic acid amplification scheme. PCR is designed to produce large quantities of identical fragments of DNA, known as amplicons, if a user-defined parent copy is present. After the PCR process has finished, the signals produced by this population of amplicons on a nanopore sensor should therefore be indicative to the presence of a DNA biomarker in the starting sample. As PCR reactions can use a mix of different proteins, detergents, and other molecules, the challenge lies in ensuring the compatibility of these reagents with a nanopore, and determining whether the background signal they produce can be discriminated from an amplicon signal. To this end, this thesis investigates PCR-nanopore compatibility, and experimentally demonstrates a nanopore signal-classification technique to successfully identify the presence of chromosomal DNA from Group A Streptococcus (GAS), an infectious bacterium responsible for strep throat, in samples derived from clinical extracts.

<p>Small molecule metabolites have important and diverse roles in every major cellular function. To study the activities of metabolites and the biological processes in which they are involved, it is important to be able to detect their levels within cells. Technologies that measure the concentrations of small molecules within the context of living, growing cells are highly advantageous but are challenging to produce. In this thesis, a novel class of intracellular small molecule sensors is produced, characterized and applied to address novel and relevant research questions. These sensors detect a specific target molecule within bacterial cells using RNA regulatory elements known as riboswitches and one of many possible reporter proteins. In addition to a project that yielded new methodology to create custom riboswitches, two projects that assess the capabilities of sensors that detect an active form of vitamin B12 are described. These projects present an abundance of data that provide novel insights into the transport and metabolism of vitamin B12 in <em>E. coli</em> cells. Overall, the results presented indicate that riboswitch-based sensors represent valuable and unique tools for the study of microbial biology. The thesis is concluded with a discussion that describes design strategies and several exciting potential applications for future riboswitch sensors.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Les besoins d’outils d’analyse et de contrôle de plus en plus performants en termes de spécificité et sensibilité favorisent le développement des capteurs chimiques et des biocapteurs. Ce travail, s’inscrivant dans ce contexte, a conduit au développement d’un capteur électrochimique à base de polymères conducteurs dédiés à la détection de molécules de faible poids moléculaire. Celui-ci repose sur l’association entre les propriétés de reconnaissance des polymères à empreintes moléculaires et celles de conduction des polymères conducteurs obtenant ainsi un capteur à base de polymères conjugués à mémoires de forme le SMP. Le polymère est obtenu en deux étapes i) une électropolymérisation sur une électrode de platine de l’EDOT avec le pré-complexé formé par l’acide thiophène-3-acétique avec atrazine via des liaisons hydrogène ii) l’extraction de l’atrazine créant des sites à mémoire de forme. Le SMP développé présente une gamme de concentration de 2,5.10-6 M à 5.10-3 M avec un seuil de détection de l’ordre du µM et une sélectivité vis-à-vis de la famille des triazines. Afin d’améliorer les performances de ce capteur et d’élargir le choix de cibles à détecter la synthèse de terthyènyle constitués de l’EDOT de part et d’autre d’un thiophène central fonctionnalisé en β a été réalisé. Ces trimères présentant des pics d’oxydation vers les 0,7 V / Ag/AgNO3 permettent d’envisager le développement de nouvelles fonctionnalités avant ou post-polymérisation tout en ayant un contrôle de la stœchiométrie et de la répartition des groupements fonctionnels. / A rapidly increasing interest is actually devoted in the literature to the design of new analytical and control devices able to form efficient chemical sensors. Thus the aim of our work was the design and the development of an electrochemical sensor based on intrinsically molecularly imprinted conducting polymer for the selective and sensitive detection of small target molecules. This goal will be achieved by the used of the recognition properties of moleculary imprinted polymer, together with the electrical conduction of conducting polymer. An original electrochemical sensor based on shape memory polymer has been constructed. This sensor has been realized following two steps: (i) a frst electropolymerisation on a platinum electrode of two co-monomers Thiophene acetic acid TAA already associated through H bonding to the atrazine target and EDOT which is intinded to play the role of conjugated link between the TAA moieties and (ii) removal of atrazine from the resulting conjugated polymer, leaving recognition sites with shape memory. The obtained sensor shows remarkable properties: a high selectivity towards the triazinic family, a large detection dynamic (2.5x10−6 to 5x10−3 M) and a low detection threshold (10−6 M). In order to increase the efficiency of this sensor and to allow the detection of a wide range molecular targets, a terthienyl, i.e. two EDOT units on both sides of the -functionalized thiophene units has been syntesized. These trimers possess an oxydation peak at about +0.7 V/ Ag/AgNO3, allowing the potential development of new pre or post polymerisation functionalities, still controling of the stoechiometry and the distributuion of functional groups.

Optofluidic flow-through biosensor devices have been in development for fast bio-target detection. Utilizing the fabrication processes developed by the microelectronics industry, these biosensors can be fabricated into lab-on-a-chip devices with a degree of platform portability. This biosensor technology can be used to detect a variety of targets, and is particularly useful for the detection single molecules and nucleic acid strands. Microfabrication also offers the possibility of production at scale, and this will offer a fast detection method for a range of applications with promising economic viability. The development of this technology has advanced to now warrant a descriptive model that will aid in the design of future iterations. The biosensor consists of multiple integrated waveguides and a microfluidic channel. This platform therefore incorporates multiple fields of study: fluorescence, optical waveguiding, microfluidics, and signal counting. This dissertation presents a model theory that integrates all these factors and predicts a biosensor design's sensitivity. The model is validated by comparing simulated tests with physical tests done with fabricated devices. Additionally, the model is used to investigate and comment on designs that have not yet been allocated time and resources to fabricate. Tangentially, an improvement to the fabrication process is investigated and implemented.

As the microelectronics industry pushes microfabrication processes further, the lab-on-a-chip field has continued to piggy-back off the industry's fabrication capabilities with the goal of producing total chemical and biological systems on small chip-size platforms. One important function of such systems is the ability to perform single molecule detection. There are currently many methods being researched for performing single molecule detection, both macro and micro in scale. This dissertation focuses on an optofluidic, lab-on-a-chip platform called the ARROW biosensor, which possesses several advantages over macro-scale single molecule detection platforms. These advantages include an amplification-free detection scheme, cheap parallel fabrication techniques, rapid single molecule detection results, and extremely low volume sample probing, which leads to ultra-sensitive detection. The ARROW biosensor was conceived in the early 2000s; however, since then it has undergone many design changes to improve and add new functionality to the lab-on-a-chip; however, water absorption in the plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposited silicon dioxide has been a problem that has plagued the biosensor platform for some time. Moisture uptake in the oxide layer of the ARROWs leads to loss of waveguiding confinement and drastically decreases the overall sensitivity of the ARROW biosensors. New ARROW designs were investigated to alleviate the negative water absorption effects in the ARROWs. The new waveguide designs were tested for resiliency to water absorption and the buried ARROW (bARROW) design was determined to be the most successful at preventing negative water absorption effects from occurring in the PECVD oxide waveguides. The bARROWs were integrated into the full biosensor platforms and used to demonstrate high sensitivity single molecule detection without any signs of water absorption affecting the bARROWs' waveguiding capabilities. The bARROW biosensors are not only water resistant, they also proved to be the most sensitive biosensors yet fabricated with average signal-to-noise ratios around 80% higher than any previously fabricated ARROW biosensors.

This thesis describes three readout formats for molecular analyses. A common feature in all works is probing techniques that upon specific target recognition ideally results in equimolar amounts of DNA circles. These are then specifically amplified and detected using any of the techniques presented herein. The first paper presents a method that enables homogeneous digital detection and enumeration of biomolecules, represented as fluorescence-labelled DNA macromolecules. This method offers precise measurements to be performed with a wide linear dynamic range. As an application, two closely related bacterial species were selectively detected. The second paper further investigates and optimizes the properties of the technique presented in paper one. The third paper demonstrates a platform that enables simultaneous quantitative analysis of large numbers of biomolecules. The array format and decoding scheme together propose a digital strategy for decoding of biomolecules. The array and the decoding procedure were characterized and evaluated for gene copy-number measurements. The fourth paper examines a new strategy for non-optical measurements of biomolecules. Characteristics of this technique are investigated, and compared to its optical equivalent, fluorescence polarization.

Improved analytical methods provide new opportunities for both biological research and medical applications. This thesis describes several novel molecular techniques for nucleic acid and protein analysis based on detection or sequencing of amplified single molecules (ASMs). ASMs were generated from padlock probe assay and proximity ligation assay (PLA) through a series of molecular processes. In Paper I, a simple colorimetric readout strategy for detection of ASMs generated from padlock probe assay was used for highly sensitive detection of RNA virus, showing the potential of using padlock probes in the point-of-care diagnostics. In Paper II, digital quantification of ASMs, which were generated from padlock probe assay and PLA through circle-to-circle amplification (C2CA), was used for rapid and sensitive detection of nucleic acids and proteins, aiming for applications in biodefense. In Paper III, digital quantification of ASMs that were generated from PLA without C2CA was shown to be able to improve the precision and sensitivity of PLA when compared to the conventional real-time PCR readout. In Paper IV, a non-optical approach for detection of ASMs generated from PLA was used for sensitive detection of bacterial spores. ASMs were detected through sensing oligonucleotide-functionalized magnetic nanobeads that were trapped within them. Finally, based on in situ sequencing of ASMs generated via padlock probe assay, a novel method that enabled sequencing of individual mRNA molecules in their natural context was established and presented in Paper V. Highly multiplex detection of mRNA molecules was also achieved based on in situ sequencing. In situ sequencing allows studies of mRNA molecules from different aspects that cannot be accessed by current in situ hybridization techniques, providing possibilities for discovery of new information from the complexity of transcriptome. Therefore, it has a great potential to become a useful tool for gene expression research and disease diagnostics.

La spectroscopie de fluorescence de molécule individuelle a révolutionné le domaine des sciences biophysiques, en permettant la visualisation des interactions moléculaires dynamiques et des caractéristiques nanoscopiques avec une haute résolution spatio-temporelle. Le contrôle des réactions enzymatiques et l'étude de la dynamique de diffusion de molécules individuelles permet de comprendre l'influence et le contrôle de ces entités nanoscopiques sur plusieurs processus biophysiques. La nanophotonique basée sur la plasmonique offre des nouvelles opportunités de suivi d'évènements à molécule unique, puisque il est possible de confiner des champs électromagnétiques dans les hotspots à nano-échelle, à dimensions spatiales comparables à une molécule unique. Dans ce projet de thèse, nous explorons plusieurs plateformes de nanoantennas photoniques avec des hotspots, et nous avons démontré les applications dans l'amélioration de la spectroscopie de fluorescence de molécule individuelle. En utilisant la fluorescence burst analysis, l'analyse de fluctuations temporelle de fluorescence,TCSPC, nous quantifions les facteurs d'amélioration de fluorescence, les volumes de détection de nanoantennas; ainsi, nous discutons l'accélération de fluorescence photo dynamique. En alternative aux structures plasmoniques, des antennes diélectriques basées sur les dimères en silicone ont aussi démontré d'améliorer la détection de fluorescence à molécule unique, pour des concentrations micro molaires physiologiquement pertinentes. En outre, nous explorons des systèmes planaires antennas in box pour l'investigation de la dynamique de diffusion de la PE et de la SM dans les membranes des cellules vivantes. / Single-molecule fluorescence spectroscopy has revolutionized the field of biophysical sciences by enabling visualization of dynamic molecular interactions and nanoscopic features with high spatiotemporal resolution. Monitoring enzymatic reactions and studying diffusion dynamics of individual molecules help us understand how these nanoscopic entities influence and control various biochemical processes. Nanophotonic antennas can efficiently localize electromagnetic radiation into nanoscale spatial dimensions comparable to single bio-molecules. These confined illumination hotspots there by offer the opportunity to follow single-molecule events at physiological expression levels. In this thesis, we explore various photonic nanoantenna platforms and demonstrate their application in enhanced single-molecule fluorescence detection. Using fluorescence burst analysis, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS), time-correlated TCSPC measurements, and near field simulations, we quantify nanoantenna detection volumes, fluorescence enhancement factors and discuss the fluorescence photodynamic accelerations mediated by optical antennas. Further, using resonant planar antenna-in-box devices we investigate the diffusion dynamics of phosphoethanolamine and sphingomyelin on the plasma membrane of living cells and discuss the results in the context of lipid rafts. Together with cholesterol depletion experiments, we provide evidence of cholesterol-induced nanodomain partitioning within less than 10~nm diameters and characteristic times being ~100 microseconds.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Plasma membranes are complex supramolecular assemblies comprised of lipids and membrane proteins. Both types of membrane constituents are organized in highly dynamic patches with profound impact on membrane functionality, illustrating the functional importance of plasma membrane fluidity. Exemplary, dynamic processes of membrane protein oligomerization and distribution are of physiological and pathological importance. However, due to the complexity of the plasma membrane, the underlying regulatory mechanisms of membrane protein organization and distribution remain elusive. To address this shortcoming, in this thesis work, different mechanisms of dynamic membrane protein assembly and distribution are examined in a polymer-tethered lipid bilayer system using comple-mentary confocal optical detection techniques, including 2D confocal imaging and single molecule-sensitive confocal fluorescence intensity analysis methods [fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) autocorrelation analysis and photon counting histogram (PCH) method]. Specifically, this complementary methodology was applied to investigate mechanisms of membrane protein assembly and distribution, which are of significance in the areas of membrane biophysics and cellular mechanics. From the membrane biophysics perspective, the role of lipid heterogeneities in the distribution and function of membrane proteins in the plasma membrane has been a long-standing problem. One of the most well-known membrane heterogeneities are known as lipid rafts, which are domains enriched in sphingolipids and cholesterol (CHOL). A hallmark of lipid rafts is that they are important regulators of membrane protein distribution and function in the plasma membrane. Unfortunately, progress in deciphering the mechanisms of raft-mediated regulation of membrane protein distribution has been sluggish, largely due to the small size and transient nature of raft domains in cellular membranes. To overcome this challenge, the current thesis explored the distribution and oligomerization of membrane proteins in raft-mimicking lipid mixtures, which form stable coexisting CHOL-enriched and CHOL-deficient lipid domains of micron-size, which can easily be visualized using optical microscopy techniques. In particular, model membrane experiments were designed, which provided insight into the role of membrane CHOL level versus binding of native ligands on the oligomerization state and distribution of GPI-anchored urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) and the transmembrane protein αvβ3 integrin. Experiments on uPAR showed that receptor oligomerization and raft sequestration are predominantly influenced by the binding of natural ligands, but are largely independent of CHOL level changes. In contrast, through a presumably different mechanism, the sequestration of αvβ3 integrin in raft-mimicking lipid mixtures is dependent on both ligand binding and CHOL content changes without altering protein oligomerization state. In addition, the significance of membrane-embedded ligands as regulators of integrin sequestration in raft-mimicking lipid mixtures was explored. One set of experiments showed that ganglioside GM3 induces dimerization of α5β1 integrins in a CHOL-free lipid bilayer, while addition of CHOL suppresses such a dimerization process. Furthermore, GM3 was found to recruit α5β1 integrin into CHOL-enriched domains, illustrating the potential sig-nificance of GM3 as a membrane-associated ligand of α5β1 integrin. Similarly, uPAR was observed to form complexes with αvβ3 integrin in a CHOL dependent manner, thereby causing the translocation of the complex into CHOL-enriched domains. Moreover, using a newly developed dual color FCS and PCH assay, the composition of uPAR and integrin within complexes was determined for the first time. From the perspective of cell mechanics, the characterization of the dynamic assembly of membrane proteins during formation of cell adhesions represents an important scientific problem. Cell adhesions play an important role as force transducers of cellular contractile forces. They may be formed between cell and extracellular matrix, through integrin-based focal adhesions, as well as between different cells, through cadherin-based adherens junctions (AJs). Importantly, both types of cell adhesions act as sensitive force sensors, which change their size and shape in response to external mechanical signals. Traditionally, the correlation between adhesion linker assembly and external mechanical cues was investigated by employing polymeric substrates of adjustable substrate stiffness containing covalently attached linkers. Such systems are well suited to mimic the mechanosensitive assembly of focal adhesions (FAs), but fail to replicate the rich dynamics of cell-cell linkages, such as treadmilling of adherens junctions, during cellular force sensing. To overcome this limitation, the 2D confocal imaging methodology was applied to investigate the dynamic assembly of N-cadherin-chimera on the surface of a polymer-tethered lipid multi-bilayer in the presence of plated cells. Here, the N-cadherin chimera-functionalized polymer-tethered lipid bilayer acts as a cell surface-mimicking cell substrate, which: (i) allows the adjustment of substrate stiffness by changing the degree of bilayer stacking and (ii) enables the free assembly of N-cadherin chimera linkers into clusters underneath migrating cells, thereby forming highly dynamic cell-substrate linkages with remarkable parallels to adherens junctions. By applying the confocal methodology, the dynamic assembly of dye-labeled N-cadherin chimera into clusters was monitored underneath adhered cells. Moreover, the long-range mobility of N-cadherin chimera clusters was analyzed by tracking the cluster positions over time using a MATLAB-based multiple-particle tracking method. Disruption of the cytoskeleton organization of plated cells confirmed the disassembly of N-cadherin chimera clusters, emphasizing the important role of the cytoskeleton of migrating cells during formation of cadherin-based cell-substrate linkages. Size and dynamics of N-cadherin chimera clusters were also analyzed as a function of substrate stiffness.

Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) have emerged as a new class of fluorescent probes and labeling agents for biological samples. QDs are bright, highly photostable and allow simultaneous excitation of multiple emissions. Owing to these properties, QDs hold exceptional promise in enabling intracellular biochemical studies and diagnosis with unprecedented sensitivity and accuracy. However, use of QD probes inside living cells remains a challenge due to difficulties in delivery of nanoparticles without causing aggregation and imaging single nanoparticles inside living cells. In this dissertation, a systematic approach to deliver, image and locate single QDs inside living cells is presented and the properties of molecular motor protein driven QD transport are studied. First, spectroscopic and imaging methods capable of differentiating single nanoparticles from the aggregates were developed. These technologies were validated by differentiating surface protein expression on viral particles and by enabling rapid counting of single biomolecules. Second, controlled delivery of single QDs into living cells is demonstrated. A surprising finding is that single QDs associate non-specifically with the dynein motor protein complex and are transported to the microtubule organizing center. Accurate localization and tracking of QDs inside cell cytoplasm revealed multiple dynein motor protein attachment resulting in increased velocity of the QDs. Further, spectrin molecule which is known to recruit dynein motor protein complex to phospholipid micelles was found to associate with the QDs. These results may serve as a benchmark for developing new QD surface coatings suitable for intracellular applications. Since, nanoparticles are similar in size to viral pathogens; better understanding of nanoparticle-cell interactions should also help engineer nanoparticle models to study virus-host cell interactions. (Contains AVI format multimedia files)