The aim of this thesis was to explore the impact of physical, sexual and emotional violence against women of reproductive age and the level of controlling behaviour in marriage on child health and survival in two different cultural settings: Bangladesh and Nicaragua. Data were acquired from four quantitative community-based studies. In two studies, a cohort including a prospective two year follow-up of 3164 mother-infant pairs in rural Bangladesh was investigated. A third study was a case-referent study in Nicaragua including mothers of 110 cases of under-five deaths and 203 referents, and in a forth study an other cohort of 1048 rural Bangladeshi women and their 2691 children was followed until 5 years of age. Maternal exposure to any form of violence, including physical, sexual, emotional, and controlling behaviour was independently associated with lower body size at birth, increased risk of stunting and under-weight at 24 months of age, slower growth velocity during the first two years of life and a higher incidence of diarrhoeal episodes and respiratory tract infections. In the Nicaraguan setting, the children of women who experienced any history of physical violence had a two-fold increase in risk of death before the age of 5 years, and those whose mothers experienced both physical and sexual violence had a six-fold increase in risk of death. In Bangladesh, an association between violence against women and under-five mortality was found among daughters of educated mothers who were exposed to severe physical violence or a high level of controlling behaviour in marriage. In all four studies, lifetime violence experience among participating mothers was high (37-69%), and the timing was less relevant than the exposure to violence per se. In conclusion, this investigation revealed that violence against women severely affects child health and survival. The findings are especially relevant in a context of high level of child under-nutrition, morbidity and under-five mortality. Efforts for protecting women from all forms of violence are needed as part of the interventions for improved child health.

Vocal Cord Dysfunction (VCD) is characterized by paradoxical vocal cord movement during inspiration or expiration, and generally affects adolescents and predominantly women. Previous studies have shown a large inconsistency concerning terminology, definitions, etiology, assessment, differential diagnosis, co-morbidity and treatment. The purpose of this study was to map knowledge on and management of VCD in Sweden. The study was conducted as a written survey addressed to speech-language pathologists and physicians, and attained an answer percentage of 79 percent. The results showed that several professions were involved in the management of these patients, but no clear pattern of referral could be observed. The majority of the respondents considered intense physical exertion and psychological stress as triggering factors for VCD. Despite this, referral to a psychologist or psychiatrist seldom occurred. Asthma was the most frequent diagnosis regarding co-morbidity, and also the most frequent misdiagnosis. Respiratory exercises, relaxation and information about the diagnosis generally form the basis of VCD treatment. Physicians rated their knowledge on VCD greater compared to the speech-language pathologists. Several of the respondents stated that an increase in knowledge and awareness among nursing staff had contributed to an increase of patients with suspected or confirmed VCD. This study showed that there was no consensus regarding assessment, co-morbidity, misdiagnosis and treatment of VCD among speech-language pathologists and physicians in Sweden. / Vocal Cord Dysfunction (VCD) karakteriseras av paradoxala stämbandsrörelser vid in- eller utandning och drabbar vanligtvis ungdomar och huvudsakligen kvinnor. I tidigare studier framkom ingen konsensus kring terminologi, definition, etiologi, utredning, differentialdiagnostik, komorbiditet eller behandling. Syftet med föreliggande studie var att kartlägga kännedom om och handhavande av VCD i Sverige. Studien genomfördes i form av en enkätundersökning bland logopeder och läkare och svarsfrekvensen var 79 %. Ur resultatet framkom att flera professioner hade träffat dessa patienter men ingen tydlig remitteringsgång observerades. Majoriteten av respondenterna ansåg att intensiv fysisk ansträngning och psykologisk stress var utlösande faktorer till VCD. Däremot förekom sällan remittering till psykolog eller psykiater. Astma var den mest frekventa diagnosen gällande komorbiditet och feldiagnostisering. Andningsövningar, avspänning/avslappning samt information kring diagnosen inkluderades i behandlingen i hög grad. Läkarna skattade sin kunskapsnivå om VCD högre än logopederna. Flera av respondenterna angav att ökad kunskap och medvetenhet bland vårdpersonal hade bidragit till en ökning av diagnostisering av patienter med misstänkt eller konstaterad VCD. Föreliggande studie visade att det inte fanns någon enighet gällande utredning, komorbiditet, feldiagnostisering och behandling av VCD bland logopeder och läkare i Sverige.

Objectives. The first aim was to examine the effects of secondary prevention with a focus on determinants in the risk of recurrent coronary heart disease (CHD). The second aim was to analyse the effects of a cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) intervention on the risk of recurrent cardiovascular disease (CVD) and to investigate the psychosocial situation of CHD patients. Material and methods. Papers I and II were based on the Swedish Acute Myocardial Infarction Statistics Register, 1969 to 2001: 775,901 events in 589,341 subjects. Papers III and IV were based on The Secondary Prevention in Uppsala Primary Care project (SUPRIM), a randomized controlled clinical trial in 362 CHD patients. Results. The risk of a recurrent acute myocardial infarction (AMI) event was highly dependent on time from the previous event, with the greatest risk immediately after an AMI event. In addition, sex, age, and AMI number influenced the general risk level. Furthermore, there has been a major decline in recurrence risk over 30 years, and there were considerable geographical differences in risk, best explained by residential area population density, with a high recurrent AMI risk in areas with the lowest and the highest population densities, and the lowest risk in areas with moderate population density. Disease status and sex were determinants of psychological well-being the first year after a CHD event. Sex seemed to be the stronger determinant. The CBT intervention focused on stress management during one year in patients with CHD.  There was significantly improved outcome in the intervention group on recurrent CVD and recurrent AMI during a 9 year follow up. A dose-response relationship was demonstrated between attendance rate at intervention group meetings and outcome, the higher the attendance rate the better the outcome. Conclusions. The risk of a recurrent AMI event was dependent on time from the previous event, with major improvement seen in recent decades. Regional differences were best explained by population density. Female CHD patients were at high risk concerning well-being after a coronary event, which deserves special attention. The CBT intervention for CHD patients improved outcomes concerning the risk of recurrent CVD and AMI events.

The aim of this thesis was to study maternal and infant effects of delayed cord clamping (≥180 seconds, DCC) compared to early (≤10 seconds, ECC) in a randomised controlled trial. Practice and guidelines regarding when to clamp the cord vary globally, and different meta-analyses have shown contradictory conclusions on benefits and disadvantages of DCC and ECC. The study population consisted of 382 term infants born after normal pregnancies and randomised to DCC or ECC after birth. The primary objective was iron stores and iron deficiency at 4 months of age, but the thesis was designed to investigate a wide range of suggested effects associated with cord clamping. Paper I showed that DCC was associated with improved iron stores at 4 months (45% higher ferritin) and that the incidence of iron deficiency was reduced from 5.7% to 0.6%. Neonatal anaemia at 2-3 days was less frequent in the DCC group, 1.2% vs. 6.3%. There were no differences between the groups in respiratory symptoms, polycythaemia, or hyperbilirubinaemia. In paper II we demonstrated that DCC versus ECC was not associated with higher risk for maternal post partum haemorrhage and rendered a comparable ratio of valid umbilical artery blood gas samples. In paper III, the Ages and Stages Questionnaire was used to assess neurodevelopment at 4 months. The total scores did not differ, but the DCC group had a higher score in the problem-solving domain and a lower score in the personal-social domain. Immunoglobulin G level was 0.7 g/L higher in the DCC group at 2–3 days, but did not differ at 4 months. Symptoms of infection up to 4 months were comparable between groups. Finally, in paper IV, iron stores and neurodevelopment were similar between groups at 12 months. Gender specific outcome on neurodevelopment at 12 months was discovered, implying positive effects from DCC on boys and negative on girls. We conclude that delaying umbilical cord clamping for 180 seconds is safe and associated with a significantly reduced risk for iron deficiency at 4 months, which may have neurodevelopmental effects at a later age.

Las tasas brutas de morbi-mortalidad no son indicadores fiables del resultado del producto sanitario, siendo necesario el uso de escalas de riesgo adjustadas por paciente y gravedad. En nuestro estudio se validaron 5 escalas de riesgo para predecir morbilidad y mortalidad en nuestros pacientes sometidos a cirugía programada (POSSUM, P-POSSUM, SAPS II, APACHE II, MODS y MPM). Tras la validación se aplicaron prospectivamente, demostrándose la utilidad de POSSUM y P-POSSUM para predecir morbilidad y mortalidad, por lo que se recomienda su uso en los servicios quirúrgicos. / the use of raw tases to mesuring health results not only is innacuracy but also is dangerous, due to the fact that, the results in medicine depend on the ability of phisician, phisiological status, pre and postoperative cares and kind of intervention. The aim of our study is the validation and prospective aplication of 6 adjusted risk scores (POSSUM, P-POSSUM, SAPS II, APACHE II, MOD S and MPM). We can draw the following conclusions: POSSUM and P-POSSUM are POSSUM and P-POSSUM systems have a high reliability in application for measuring risk of mortality and morbidity in patients studied. APACHE II, SAPS II and MODS scores do not have good reliability in their application for predicting mortality in surgical patients. The use of the POSSUM and P-POSSUM systems is highly recommended in the surgery services to monitor and detect errors in clinical practice.

Background: The Division of Global HIV/AIDS at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is working on a public health evaluation (PHE) in the eastern districts of Botswana. This PHE aims to evaluate the effectiveness of Project AIM, a group-level intervention designed to reduce HIV risk behaviors in youth ages 11 to 14, when combined with the regular Botswana Skills for Life Curriculum, a standard HIV prevention education curriculum in Botswana schools. In order to evaluate Project AIM, a self-report survey and a biological testing for herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) will be conducted. Methodology: Based on studies done on the psychosocial impact of HSV-2 diagnosis on asymptomatic individuals in the USA, the literature recommends providing pre and post counseling and education to individuals testing for genital herpes to help cope and diminish the psychosocial impact of the diagnosis. In order to prepare Botswana’s clinics and schools participating in the PHE to provide the support for newly diagnosed adolescents with HSV-2, guidance materials were developed for health care practitioners and school guidance teachers. Materials were created using Information Mapping technique to analyze, organize, and present the information, and the Microsoft Office Flesch Kinkade Grade Level (FK) tool to assess the readability levels of the materials. Results: Guidance materials were prepared using the 7±2 theoretical limit of human short-term memory information mapping rule, and the FK grade levels of 6.0 to 8.0 recommended readability scores. Guidance materials included information regarding HSV-2 symptoms, treatment, and prevention. They also included information on the PHE study, youth friendly health services, counseling and education, clinic referrals and contact information. Conclusions: The development of guidance materials for schools and clinic participants of the CDC PHE in Botswana will provide health practitioners and school guidance teachers with accurate HSV-2 information to counsel and educate student participants in this research study. The guidance materials should help students cope with potential psychosocial disorders associated with pre and post diagnosis of HSV-2.

Health problems of the human beings in a society are one of the main components of the social security systems due to the dimension of the financial burden it might bring on individuals, employers, insurance companies and governments. Morbidity measures, such as incidence and prevalence of a specific disease in a certain population enable researchers to estimate for individuals the probability of being diagnosed or being prone to the diseases. This information is usually not tractable because of the non-availability of the convenient data or recordings for many countries as well as Turkey. Even if it is available, it is commonly limited with largely varying characteristics about the type and coverage of the diseases. In this regard, the pattern that a population follows for an acute disease may not be the same for chronic diseases. Having those indicators determined for a group of insureds will enable underwriters to have more profitable and economical premium calculation and precision on required reserve estimation. v Based on their characteristics such as acute or chronic behaviour, the gender, and the location of residency of people, the diseases show different behaviour on their occurrences. From the insurer

The stockholm county proposed legislation in 2010 on the use of studded tires in the city. The aim of the policy was to reduce the use of studded tires by 50 percent. The research question investigates the authenticity of the policy where it was hypothesized that the net social benefits for the imposition of this charge was less than or equal to zero. Emperical literatures were chosen systematically and with the help of theories on welfare economics, a meta analysis was employed quantifying cost and benefits of all outcomes. The findings shows that the NSB is less than zero meaning that it was a wise decision to reject the proposal.

Σκοπός της παρούσας διατριβής ήταν να μελετηθεί η επίδραση του μηχανικού-ακουστικού ερεθισμού στη βιοφυσική εικόνα του εμβρύου με μια προοπτική τυχαιοποιημένη μελέτη Το υλικό της μελέτης απετέλεσαν γυναίκες με μονήρεις κυήσεις, ηλικία κύησης 30 + 0 εβδομάδες και βιοφυσική εικόνα ≤ 8/10. Οι γυναίκες με τυχαίο τρόπο κατατάσσονταν σε μια από δύο ομάδες. Στην ομάδα Α εφαρμοζόταν ακουστικός ερεθισμός διάρκειας 3 δευτερολέπτων με ένα τεχνητό λάρυγγα. Αν η βιοφυσική εικόνα παρέμενε μη φυσιολογική για 30 λεπτά, ακολουθούσε η εφαρμογή ενός δεύτερου ερεθίσματος, ίδιου με το πρώτο και εκτίμηση της βιοφυσικής εικόνας για ακόμη 30 λεπτά. Στην ομάδα Β ο χρόνος παρατήρησης παρατάθηκε για 60 λεπτά (δύο διαστήματα των 30 λεπτών) , ώστε να συμφωνεί με το χρόνο εξέτασης των γυναικών της ομάδας Α. Οι κυήσεις αντιμετωπίστηκαν με βάση την τελική βαθμολογία της βιοφυσικής εικόνας. Όσες γυναίκες γέννησαν περισσότερο από 24 ώρες από την τελευταία εξέταση δεν περιελήφθησαν στη μελέτη. Τα κριτήρια αξιολόγησης ήταν ενδομήτριος θάνατος, καισαρική τομή για εμβρυϊκή δυσπραγία, βαθμολογία Apgar < 7 στα 5 λεπτά από τον τοκετό, κεχρωσμένο αμνιακό υγρό (από μηκώνιο) και εισαγωγή στη ΜΕΘ νεογνών. Η μηδενική υπόθεση ήταν ότι η εφαρμογή του ακουστικού ερεθισμού δεν μεταβάλλει τις στατιστικές παραμέτρους της δοκιμασίας. Συνολικά 2,833 γυναίκες εισήλθαν στη μελέτη και συγκεκριμένα 1,349 στην ομάδα Α και 1,484 στην ομάδα Β. Η εφαρμογή του ακουστικού ερεθισμού μείωσε σημαντικά τον αριθμό των θετικών δοκιμασιών στην ομάδα Α σε σχέση με την ομάδα Β (4.74% vs. 6.67%, p < 0.05) και αύξησε την επίπτωση των κριτηρίων αξιολόγησης στην υποομάδα των γυναικών με θετική τελική δοκιμασία (positive likelihood ratio: 24.1-CI 95%: 11.12-52.46 vs. 7.52-CI 95%: 4.93-11.46), χωρίς να τροποποιεί το περιγεννητικό αποτέλεσμα. Επιπλέον, η ειδικότητα, η θετική προγνωστική αξία και η ακρίβεια της μεθόδου βελτιώθηκαν σημαντικά στην ομάδα Α,όπως επίσης και η αρνητική προγνωστική αξία για τους ενδομήτριους θανάτους. Συμπερασματικά, η εφαρμογή του μηχανικού-ακουστικού ερεθισμού σε περιπτώσεις που υπάρχει υποψία για εμβρυϊκή δυσπραγία, βελτιώνει την αποτελεσματικότητα της μεθόδου (βιοφυσικής εικόνας), μειώνοντας τις ψευδώς θετικές δοκιμασίες και βελτιώνοντας την ακρίβεια της μεθόδου. Θα πρέπει δε να θεωρείται ως μέσο μιας πιο ενδελεχούς εμβρυϊκής εκτίμησης σε αυτές τις περιπτώσεις. / OBJECTIVES: To verify the effect of vibroacoustic stimulation on biophysical profile score, with a prospective randomised study. STUDY DESIGN: All women with singleton pregnancy, gestational age ≥ 30 weeks, intact membranes and biophysical profile score ≤ 8/10 entered the study, after giving written consent, and were randomised to two groups. In group A, a 3-second stimulus with an artificial larynx was applied; if biophysical profile remained abnormal for 30 minutes, a second stimulus was applied, and it was assessed again. In group B the observation time was extended for 60 minutes to match the time periods of group A. Pregnancies were managed by final test score and patients delivering more than 24 hours apart from last examination were disregarded from the study. Outcome criteria were intrauterine deaths, caesarean sections for fetal distress, Apgar score < 7 at 5 minutes postpartum, meconium-stained amniotic fluid and neonatal intensive care unit admissions. Our null hypothesis was that application of vibroacoustic stimulation does not alter test’s statistical parameters. RESULTS: 1,349 patients were randomised in group A, and 1,484 in group B (2,833 in total). When comparing group A to B, application of vibroacoustic stimulation significantly decreased the number of positive tests (4.74% vs. 6.67%, p < 0.05) and increased the prevalence of outcome criteria in this subgroup (positive likelihood ratio: 24.1-CI 95%: 11.12-52.46 vs. 7.52-CI 95%: 4.93-11.46), without altering perinatal outcome. Furthermore, specificity, positive predictive value and test accuracy were significantly improved, as well as negative predictive value for intrauterine death. CONCLUSION: Vibroacoustic stimulation improves the efficiency of biophysical profile score by decreasing false positive tests and improving test accuracy and should be considered as a means of a more thorough fetal evaluation when fetal compromise is suspected.

This research examines the viability of a need-based approach that models the age-trajectories of healthcare utilization. We propose a fundamentally different way of treating age in modeling healthcare use. Rather than treating age as a need indicator, we refocus modeling efforts to predicting the age-trajectories of healthcare use. Using inpatient hospital utilization data from the Discharge Abstract Database, first, we model the age-trajectories of the rate of hospital use employing a common functional form. Second, we assess variation in these age-trajectories using growth curve modeling. Third, we explain variation in these age-trajectories using census variables. Our analysis shows that the regional variation in the age-trajectories of the rate of inpatient hospital use is sufficient to justify this method, and could be partially explained using census variables. This indicates that modeling age-trajectories of healthcare use is advantageous, and the current need-based approach may benefit from this new modeling strategy.