A literatura demonstra que adultos planejam antecipadamente como apreender um objeto conforme o objetivo a ser cumprido, priorizando o Estado de Conforto ao Final da ação (ESC), mesmo que, para isso, precisem assumir uma posição biomecanicamente desajeitada no início do movimento. Esse estado de conforto parece ser mais evidente diante de uma maior demanda de precisão. Contudo, pouco é conhecido sobre o processo de desenvolvimento dessa capacidade, particularmente considerando as características de crianças com problemas motores. Para verificar essas questões foram conduzidos dois estudos. O primeiro objetivou investigar se a demanda de precisão afeta o planejamento de ações manipulativas de adultos. Participaram 46 universitários (22,0 ± 4,34 anos) em uma tarefa de apreensão de uma barra de madeira, transporte e encaixe em um de dois alvos laterais. A demanda de precisão foi manipulada pela extremidade da barra e o orifício dos alvos (cilíndrico ou semicilíndrico). Foi analisado o percentual do ESC, o tempo de reação (TR), o tempo de alcance (TALC), o tempo de encaixe (TENC) e o tempo de movimento (TM). O ESC foi confirmado nas duas condições da tarefa, e com isso, a hipótese da precisão não foi aceita. Não se observou diferença no TR, mas o TM foi menor nas ações confortáveis comparadas ao desconforto. Maior TR e TM foram observados na condição de maior demanda de precisão, demonstrando que foi necessário mais tempo de análise para a tomada de decisão correta. O objetivo do segundo estudo foi investigar se crianças com desenvolvimento típico (DT) e com Transtorno do Desenvolvimento da Coordenação (TDC) planejam uma tarefa manipulativa sobre duas condições diferentes de demanda de precisão. Participaram 63 crianças com DT e 32 crianças com TDC, que formaram os grupos de 5-6, 7-8 e 9-10 anos de idade, e realizaram a mesma tarefa do primeiro estudo. O ESC foi novamente confirmado nos três grupos etários das crianças com DT, mas somente aos 7-8 anos nas crianças com TDC. A hipótese da precisão se confirmou somente no grupo de crianças mais novas com DT. Foi notável que as crianças com TDC apresentaram todos os tempos superiores aos das crianças com DT, mas não houve diferenças entre os grupos no tempo para o planejamento (TR). Além disso, verificou-se que o ESC foi mais evidente no grupo de DT na condição de maior precisão. Assim, as crianças com TDC planejaram a ação menos frequentemente e parecem ter sido mais cautelosas na execução do movimento, mesmo com o requerimento de realizar \"o mais rápido possível\". Semelhantemente, os três grupos buscaram estratégias para resolver o problema da tarefa, mas somente as crianças com TDC melhoraram a capacidade de planejamento com a prática, constatada pela diminuição de erros e aumento no percentual de conforto nos blocos finais de tentativas. Nos dois estudos realizados, verificou-se que, além do planejamento prévio da ação, estratégias similares foram utilizadas pelos adultos e pelas crianças na resolução do problema, discutidas a partir da ideia de um planejamento on line e um comportamento parcialmente planejado / The literature shows that adults plan in advance how to grip an object according to the goal, prioritizing the End-State-Comfort of the action (ESC), even if, to this end, they have to assume a biomechanically awkward posture during the beginning of the movement. This comfort state may be most pronounced in the face of higher precision demand. However, little is known about the development of this skill, particularly considering the characteristics of children with motor problems. To verify these questions, two studies were conducted. The first study aimed to investigate if precision demand affects the manipulative action planning of adults. Forty-six graduate students (22,0 ± 4,34 years-old) participated in a task of grabbing a wooden bar, transport it and insert it in one of two laterals targets. The precision demand was manipulated with the bar extremity and the holes of the targets (cylindrical or semi cylindrical). The percentage of ESC, the reaction time (TR), reaching time (TALC), insertion time (TENC) and the movement time (TM) were analyzed. The ESC was confirmed in both task conditions, and thus, the precision hypothesis wasn\'t accepted. No difference in the TR was observed, but TM was lower in the comfortable actions when compared to those uncomfortable. Higher TR and TM were observed in the conditions of higher precision demand, showing that it was necessary more time for analysis during decision making. The objective of the second study was to investigate if children with typical development (DT) and with Developmental Coordination Disorder (TDC) plan a manipulative task on two different conditions of precision demand. Sixty-three children with DT and 32 children with TDC, divided in 5-6 years-old, 7-8 years-old and 9-10 years-old groups, participated in this study. The children performed the same task of the first study. The ESC was again confirmed in the three groups of children with DT, but only in the 7-8 years-old group in children with TDC. The precision hypothesis was confirmed only in the group of younger children with DT. Children with TDC had all time scores higher than DT children, but there was no difference between the groups in planning time (TR). The ESC was evident in the DT groups in conditions of higher precision demand. Thus, children with TDC planned the action less frequently and seem to have been more cautions in movement execution, even when asked to \"perform as soon as possible\". Similarly, the three groups used strategies to solve the problem of the task, but only children with TDC improved the capacity of planning with practice, as seen by a decrease of the errors and an increase in the percentage of comfort in the final trial blocks. In the two studies, it was observed that, in addition to the anticipatory action planning, similar strategies were used by adults and children to solve the problem, discussed from the idea of on line planning and partially planned behavior

A anóxia neonatal decorre da redução de oxigênio no feto ou no recém-nascido e provoca morte e morbidade principalmente nos prematuros. Neste projeto avaliamos se o exercício físico espontâneo em ratas gestantes atenua os problemas no desenvolvimento e na cognição provocados pela anóxia neonatal nos filhotes. Para tanto, avaliamos o desenvolvimento somático e sensorimotor dos filhotes até o desmame e na idade adulta avaliamos a sua memória espacial. Também analisamos a densidade de neurônios e a expressão relativa de sinapsina I no hipocampo de animais jovens e adultos. O exercício materno espontâneo foi capaz de reverter o atraso provocado pela anóxia neonatal no aparecimento de características físicas e reflexos. Em animais jovens, ele também diminuiu a redução, pela anóxia, da densidade neuronal no giro dentado e da expressão relativa de sinapsina I. Os efeitos do exercício materno e da anóxia neonatal aparentemente não persistiram até a vida adulta. Assim, o exercício materno espontâneo atenua os efeitos da anóxia neonatal em jovens. / Neonatal anoxia follows from oxygen reduction in fetus or newborn and causes death and morbidity mainly in premature children. We evaluated if spontaneous maternal exercise in pregnant rats attenuates problems in the development and in the cognition caused by neonatal anoxia in pups. Thereunto, we evaluated the somatic and sensory-motor development of pups until weaning and, at adult age, we evaluated their spatial memory. We also analysed the neuron density and the relative expression of synapsin I in the hippocampus of young and adult animals. The spontaneous maternal exercise was able to reverse the delay caused by neonatal anoxia in the development of physical traits and reflexes. In young animals, maternal exercise also decrease the reduction, by anoxia, of neuronal density in the dentate gyrus and of relative expression. of synapsin I. Maternal exercise and neonatal anoxia effects apparently did not persist until adulthood. Thus, spontaneous maternal exercise attenuates neonatal anoxia effects in Young rats.

Mental retardation is a heterogeneous group of disorders with countless causes. It is characterised by cognitive and functional limitations in everyday skills, for example social skills, communication skills and motor skills and can be classified in behavioural, etiological and educational systems. Down's syndrome and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome are two of the many syndromes defined under mental retardation. The goal of this dissertation was to determine the effect of a water activity intervention programme on the motor proficiency levels of children with Down's syndrome and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. These aims were addressed by structuring the dissertation in five chapters: Chapter one constituting the introduction and statement of the problem, Chapter 2 presenting a review of relevant literature, Chapters 3 and 4 consisting of two research articles, addressing the specific aims of the study, and Chapter 5 including the summary, conclusions and recommendations. All the children who participated in the study were intuitionalized in a school for the mentally and physically handicapped. The MABC-test was used as the main evaluation instrument, and components of the Charlop-Atwell test were used to evaluate the coordination skills of the children with Down's syndrome. The first aim of this study was to determine the effect of a specially designed water activity intervention programme on the motor proficiency levels of children with Down's syndrome. Six children classified as having Down's syndrome, formed part of the research group. Their chronological age ranged between 9 and 14 years while their mental age classification was that of a 4 to 5 year old. The data was analysed by means Summary of descriptive statistics, and effect sizes were determined. The second aim of the study was to determine the effect of a water activity intervention programme on the motor proficiency levels of children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Six children participated in the programme. Their chronological age ranged between 7 and 17 years while their mental age classification was that of a 4 to 11 year old. Reporting the results were in the form of case studies, and effect sizes of differences were determined. With regard to the first aim of the study the results indicated that the motor proficiency levels of the experimental group with Down's syndrome improved, especially regarding the MABC-total, balance- and total body coordination skills. With reference to the second aim of the study, the results indicated that improvement in the motor proficiency levels of the children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome had a lasting effect. The MABC total, ball skills and manual dexterity were the components that showed the best improvement. It can be concluded that a water activity intervention programme is a suitable method for rectifying motor deficiencies among children with Down's syndrome and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Recommendations for the improvement of the water activity programme were presented, as well as suggestions for further studies. / Thesis (M.A. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

This study had the dual purpose of determining the anthropometric and motor development status of street children as well as to establish the effect of an intervention programme on their motor development. The first aim of the study was to determine the anthropometric and motor development status of street children. The children were selected from a sample of street children living in a state-run shelter. Twenty eight children (20 boys and 8 girls) between the ages of 7 and 14 were measured to determine their anthropometric and motor development status. The anthropometric measures included stature, mass, body-mass index (BMI), and two skin folds (subscapular and triceps). The measurements were performed according to the protocol of the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK). The results of the anthropometric measurements showed that the street children are shorter, lighter and have a lower BMI and smaller skin folds than the norm for children of the same age. The sample exhibited a prevalence of malnutrition. The same subjects who were tested to determine the anthropometric composition (except for four children, who had since left the shelter) were used to determine the motor development status. The gross motor, fine motor and neuromotor functions were tested to determine the motor development status. This was determined by means of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test II of Motor Proficiency (BOTMP), the Sensory Input Screening Instrument and a section of the Quick Neurological Screening Test II. The results showed that the motor (gross motor, fine motor and neuromotor) development of the street children is below the standard norms. The second aim of the study was to determine the effect of an intervention programme on the motor development of street children. The same subjects who were tested to determine the motor development status (except for four children, who had since left the shelter) were used to determine the effect of a motor intervention programme. Seventeen boys and 7 girls between the ages of 7 and 14 years were randomly selected and divided into an experimental (n=13) and a control group (n= 11). A 10-week motor intervention programme that consisted of bi-weekly sessions of 45 minutes was implemented. The affectivity of this was evaluated by a post-test. The programme consisted of perceptual motor, sensory integration and task specific activities using the integrated method. The main components, which were addressed in the lessons, were bilateral integration, response speed, hand skills, muscle tone, motor planning, equilibrium, vestibular function and vision strengthening activities. The program was presented by a qualified kinderkineticist. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOTMP), the Sensory Input Screening Instrument and a section of the Quick Neurological Screening Test I1 were applied to determine the effect of the intervention programme. Covariance of analysis, correcting for pre-testing differences between the groups, indicated improvement of the Bruininks-Oseretsky-Test Total as well as in fine motor skills and upper limb speed in the experimental group. Vestibular and vision functions also increased significantly in this group, which might have contributed to the improvement in fine motor development. All these improvements showed a high practical significance (ES>0.8). Based on the results of this study, it is recommended that the physical growth and motor development deficits as well as the positive effects of the intervention program, as identified in this study be brought under the attention of relevant persons in state organizations and private institutions, which are involved with street children. / Thesis (M.A. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

Tyrimo objektas: skirtingos lyties, gimimo amžiaus, svorio ir ūgio kūdikių motorinės raidos kitimas taikant kineziterapiją. Tyrimo problema: Labai svarbu kuo anksčiau atrinkti vaikus, kurių raida nukrypsta nuo normos, yra paveikta ar veikiama rizikos veiksnių. Mokslinės medicininės literatūros šaltiniuose (Mockevičienė, 2003; Prasauskienė, 2003) teigiama, kad vaikų raidai ryškų poveikį turi gimimo savaitė ir naujagimio ūgis, svoris. Tyrimo tikslas – nustatyti kineziterapijos poveikį skirtingos lyties, gimimo amžiaus, svorio ir ūgio kūdikių motorinei raidai. Tyrimo uždaviniai: 1.Nustatyti kineziterapijos poveikį mergaičių ir berniukų motorinei raidai. 2. Nustatyti kineziterapijos poveikį išnešiotų ir neišnešiotų kūdikių motorinei raidai. 3. Nustatyti kineziterapijos poveikį normalaus ir mažo kūno svorio kūdikių motorinei raidai. 4. Nustatyti kineziterapijos poveikį skirtingo ūgio kūdikių motorinei raidai. 5. Nustatyti koreliacinius ryšius tarp vertintų rodiklių. Tyrimo metodai ir organizavimas: tyrimas buvo atliktas Klaipėdos Sutrikusio Vystymosi kūdikių namuose nuo 2009 m. ir truko 3 mėnesius. Ankstyvosios reabilitacijos ir korekcijos skyriuje tiriamųjų (n=20, chronologinis amžius – nuo 1 iki 11 mėnesių) motorinė branda buvo vertinama prieš ir po kineziterapijos procedūrų pagal Miuncheno funkcinės raidos diagnostiką bei apskaičiuojamas motorikos koeficientas ir įvertinta raumenų įtampa. Tyrimo išvados: 1. Po kineziterapijos mergaičių ir berniukų motorinė raida pagerėjo... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Object of study: improvement of motor development in infants of different gender, gestational age, body weight and height. Issue of study: It is very important to select the children, whose development deviates from normal and is affected or under affect of risk factors, as earlier as possible. The sources of scientific medical literature (Mockevičienė, 2003; Prasauskienė, 2003) states that the week of birth, newborn's tature and weight have strong influence on the development of children. Aim of study: to determine the influence of physiotherapy on motor development of babies with different gender, age of birth, weight and stature. Goals of study: 1. To determine the influence of physiotherapy on motor development of girls and boys. 2. To determine the influence of physiotherapy on motor development of full-term and pre-term infants. 3. To determine the influence of physiotherapy on motor development of normal and low body weight infants. 4. To determine the influence of physiotherapy on motor development of different stature babies. 5. To determine correlations among evaluation ratios. Methods and organization of study: the research was done in Klaipeda’s baby-house of developmental disorders in 2009 and it took 3 months. The motor maturity, motor quotient (MQ) and muscle tone of 20 infants’ (with chronological age from 1 month till 11 months) were evaluated before and after physiotherapy according to Munich Functional Developmental Diagnostic scale. Conclusions: 1. The... [to full text]

Mental retardation is a heterogeneous group of disorders with countless causes. It is characterised by cognitive and functional limitations in everyday skills, for example social skills, communication skills and motor skills and can be classified in behavioural, etiological and educational systems. Down's syndrome and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome are two of the many syndromes defined under mental retardation. The goal of this dissertation was to determine the effect of a water activity intervention programme on the motor proficiency levels of children with Down's syndrome and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. These aims were addressed by structuring the dissertation in five chapters: Chapter one constituting the introduction and statement of the problem, Chapter 2 presenting a review of relevant literature, Chapters 3 and 4 consisting of two research articles, addressing the specific aims of the study, and Chapter 5 including the summary, conclusions and recommendations. All the children who participated in the study were intuitionalized in a school for the mentally and physically handicapped. The MABC-test was used as the main evaluation instrument, and components of the Charlop-Atwell test were used to evaluate the coordination skills of the children with Down's syndrome. The first aim of this study was to determine the effect of a specially designed water activity intervention programme on the motor proficiency levels of children with Down's syndrome. Six children classified as having Down's syndrome, formed part of the research group. Their chronological age ranged between 9 and 14 years while their mental age classification was that of a 4 to 5 year old. The data was analysed by means Summary of descriptive statistics, and effect sizes were determined. The second aim of the study was to determine the effect of a water activity intervention programme on the motor proficiency levels of children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Six children participated in the programme. Their chronological age ranged between 7 and 17 years while their mental age classification was that of a 4 to 11 year old. Reporting the results were in the form of case studies, and effect sizes of differences were determined. With regard to the first aim of the study the results indicated that the motor proficiency levels of the experimental group with Down's syndrome improved, especially regarding the MABC-total, balance- and total body coordination skills. With reference to the second aim of the study, the results indicated that improvement in the motor proficiency levels of the children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome had a lasting effect. The MABC total, ball skills and manual dexterity were the components that showed the best improvement. It can be concluded that a water activity intervention programme is a suitable method for rectifying motor deficiencies among children with Down's syndrome and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Recommendations for the improvement of the water activity programme were presented, as well as suggestions for further studies. / Thesis (M.A. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

This study had the dual purpose of determining the anthropometric and motor development status of street children as well as to establish the effect of an intervention programme on their motor development. The first aim of the study was to determine the anthropometric and motor development status of street children. The children were selected from a sample of street children living in a state-run shelter. Twenty eight children (20 boys and 8 girls) between the ages of 7 and 14 were measured to determine their anthropometric and motor development status. The anthropometric measures included stature, mass, body-mass index (BMI), and two skin folds (subscapular and triceps). The measurements were performed according to the protocol of the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK). The results of the anthropometric measurements showed that the street children are shorter, lighter and have a lower BMI and smaller skin folds than the norm for children of the same age. The sample exhibited a prevalence of malnutrition. The same subjects who were tested to determine the anthropometric composition (except for four children, who had since left the shelter) were used to determine the motor development status. The gross motor, fine motor and neuromotor functions were tested to determine the motor development status. This was determined by means of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test II of Motor Proficiency (BOTMP), the Sensory Input Screening Instrument and a section of the Quick Neurological Screening Test II. The results showed that the motor (gross motor, fine motor and neuromotor) development of the street children is below the standard norms. The second aim of the study was to determine the effect of an intervention programme on the motor development of street children. The same subjects who were tested to determine the motor development status (except for four children, who had since left the shelter) were used to determine the effect of a motor intervention programme. Seventeen boys and 7 girls between the ages of 7 and 14 years were randomly selected and divided into an experimental (n=13) and a control group (n= 11). A 10-week motor intervention programme that consisted of bi-weekly sessions of 45 minutes was implemented. The affectivity of this was evaluated by a post-test. The programme consisted of perceptual motor, sensory integration and task specific activities using the integrated method. The main components, which were addressed in the lessons, were bilateral integration, response speed, hand skills, muscle tone, motor planning, equilibrium, vestibular function and vision strengthening activities. The program was presented by a qualified kinderkineticist. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOTMP), the Sensory Input Screening Instrument and a section of the Quick Neurological Screening Test I1 were applied to determine the effect of the intervention programme. Covariance of analysis, correcting for pre-testing differences between the groups, indicated improvement of the Bruininks-Oseretsky-Test Total as well as in fine motor skills and upper limb speed in the experimental group. Vestibular and vision functions also increased significantly in this group, which might have contributed to the improvement in fine motor development. All these improvements showed a high practical significance (ES>0.8). Based on the results of this study, it is recommended that the physical growth and motor development deficits as well as the positive effects of the intervention program, as identified in this study be brought under the attention of relevant persons in state organizations and private institutions, which are involved with street children. / Thesis (M.A. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

The increasing prevalence of childhood obesity worldwide is viewed as a global epidemic (World Health Organization, 2010). It is associated with a variety of health problems as well as physical– (cardio–respiratory endurance, flexibility, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and body composition), and motor proficiency (fine manual control, manual coordination, body coordination, and strength–and–agility) (Asayama et al., 2003:644; Okely et al., 2004:242; Tokmakidis et al., 2006:870). As far as the South African context is concerned, there is little research examining these relationships and the effect of physical intervention there upon, in nine– to 12–year old children. The first and second objectives of this study were to determine whether obesity would influence the physical– and/or the motor proficiency of nine– to 12–year–old South African children. The third and fourth objectives of this study were to determine the effect of a multidisciplinary intervention on the physical– and the motor proficiency of nine– to 12–year–old obese children. For objectives one and two, a cross–sectional study was performed on 280 children (128 boys and 152 girls), with an average age of 10.6 years (±1.05). Anthropometric–, physical– and motor measurements were obtained by the 'Fitnessgram' (Meredith & Welk, 1999) and the 'Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency–II' (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005). Body mass index (BMI) cut–off points were used to classify the children as normal, overweight, or obese (Cole et al., 2000). The data was analysed with regard to the above–mentioned objectives with the Statistica computer program, by means of descriptive statistics, Spearman rank correlations, and variance analyses. The results show that the physical fitness variables, cardio–respiratory endurance and muscular strength, particularly leg muscular strength, showed significant decreases with an increase in BMI. A progressive, but insignificant, decrease was found in muscular endurance with an increase in BMI, while flexibility showed the weakest relationship to BMI. The motor variables strength–and–agility weakened significantly with an increase in BMI, while fine manual control, manual coordination, and body coordination showed the weakest relationships to BMI. Variance analysis showed further significant relationships among BMI, cardio–respiratory endurance, muscular strength, and running speed–and–agility (p<0.05). It can be concluded that health–promoting physical fitness and the motor proficiency of young South African children are negatively influenced by obesity and intervention strategies are recommended to promote the quality of life of such children. For objectives three and four, an availability random sample of 37 experimental subjects, with an average age of 11 years (±0.99) was taken, where 20 subjects (seven boys and 13 girls) took part in a multidisciplinary intervention programme, and 17 subjects (six boys and 11 girls) formed part of a control group. Body composition, physical–, and motor proficiency were analysed by the 'Fitnessgram' (Meredith & Welk, 1999) and the 'Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency–II' (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005) during baseline measurements, on completion of the intervention programme, and after a follow–up period of three months. The results, which were analysed with a repeated–measures analysis, Bonferroni–post–hoc analysis, and dependent and independent t–tests, show that the intervention programme brought about a significant change in all the body composition variables, excluding body height. Flexibility, muscular strength, and abdominal muscular endurance, as well as one of the four fine manual control test items (folding paper), two of the 12 body coordination test items (tapping feet and fingers - opposite sides synchronised, and standing on one leg on a line - eyes closed), and six of the seven strength and agility test items (shuttle run, stepping sideways over a balance beam, one–legged stationary hops, one–legged side hops, two–legged side hops, and sit–ups), showed significant differences from the control group on completion of the intervention programme. The results indicate that the intervention brought about differences in body composition and physical– and motor proficiency and also showed a sustainable effect over a period of three months on body fat percentage, subscapular skinfold and leg muscular strength. From this, it can be deduced that young obese children need sustained guidance to be able to maintain the lifestyle adaptations that are required by obesity interventions. It can be concluded that the physical– and motor proficiency of children is negatively influenced by obesity, that a multidisciplinary intervention programme improves the body composition profile of obese children and has a positive effect on the physical– and the motor proficiency of obese nine– to 12–year old South African children, although the effect is not sustainable without ongoing, controlled intervention. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Kinderkinetics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The increasing prevalence of childhood obesity worldwide is viewed as a global epidemic (World Health Organization, 2010). It is associated with a variety of health problems as well as physical– (cardio–respiratory endurance, flexibility, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and body composition), and motor proficiency (fine manual control, manual coordination, body coordination, and strength–and–agility) (Asayama et al., 2003:644; Okely et al., 2004:242; Tokmakidis et al., 2006:870). As far as the South African context is concerned, there is little research examining these relationships and the effect of physical intervention there upon, in nine– to 12–year old children. The first and second objectives of this study were to determine whether obesity would influence the physical– and/or the motor proficiency of nine– to 12–year–old South African children. The third and fourth objectives of this study were to determine the effect of a multidisciplinary intervention on the physical– and the motor proficiency of nine– to 12–year–old obese children. For objectives one and two, a cross–sectional study was performed on 280 children (128 boys and 152 girls), with an average age of 10.6 years (±1.05). Anthropometric–, physical– and motor measurements were obtained by the 'Fitnessgram' (Meredith & Welk, 1999) and the 'Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency–II' (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005). Body mass index (BMI) cut–off points were used to classify the children as normal, overweight, or obese (Cole et al., 2000). The data was analysed with regard to the above–mentioned objectives with the Statistica computer program, by means of descriptive statistics, Spearman rank correlations, and variance analyses. The results show that the physical fitness variables, cardio–respiratory endurance and muscular strength, particularly leg muscular strength, showed significant decreases with an increase in BMI. A progressive, but insignificant, decrease was found in muscular endurance with an increase in BMI, while flexibility showed the weakest relationship to BMI. The motor variables strength–and–agility weakened significantly with an increase in BMI, while fine manual control, manual coordination, and body coordination showed the weakest relationships to BMI. Variance analysis showed further significant relationships among BMI, cardio–respiratory endurance, muscular strength, and running speed–and–agility (p<0.05). It can be concluded that health–promoting physical fitness and the motor proficiency of young South African children are negatively influenced by obesity and intervention strategies are recommended to promote the quality of life of such children. For objectives three and four, an availability random sample of 37 experimental subjects, with an average age of 11 years (±0.99) was taken, where 20 subjects (seven boys and 13 girls) took part in a multidisciplinary intervention programme, and 17 subjects (six boys and 11 girls) formed part of a control group. Body composition, physical–, and motor proficiency were analysed by the 'Fitnessgram' (Meredith & Welk, 1999) and the 'Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency–II' (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005) during baseline measurements, on completion of the intervention programme, and after a follow–up period of three months. The results, which were analysed with a repeated–measures analysis, Bonferroni–post–hoc analysis, and dependent and independent t–tests, show that the intervention programme brought about a significant change in all the body composition variables, excluding body height. Flexibility, muscular strength, and abdominal muscular endurance, as well as one of the four fine manual control test items (folding paper), two of the 12 body coordination test items (tapping feet and fingers - opposite sides synchronised, and standing on one leg on a line - eyes closed), and six of the seven strength and agility test items (shuttle run, stepping sideways over a balance beam, one–legged stationary hops, one–legged side hops, two–legged side hops, and sit–ups), showed significant differences from the control group on completion of the intervention programme. The results indicate that the intervention brought about differences in body composition and physical– and motor proficiency and also showed a sustainable effect over a period of three months on body fat percentage, subscapular skinfold and leg muscular strength. From this, it can be deduced that young obese children need sustained guidance to be able to maintain the lifestyle adaptations that are required by obesity interventions. It can be concluded that the physical– and motor proficiency of children is negatively influenced by obesity, that a multidisciplinary intervention programme improves the body composition profile of obese children and has a positive effect on the physical– and the motor proficiency of obese nine– to 12–year old South African children, although the effect is not sustainable without ongoing, controlled intervention. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Kinderkinetics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Of all motor skills, manual reaching might be the one ability that matters most for infants’ perceptual, cognitive and social development. Reaching allows infants to learn about object properties, but also gives opportunities for socializing with others. The general aim of the present thesis was to study the importance of manual motor development in infancy from different perspectives; first, through examining stereopsis as a prerequisite for efficient reaching development, second, with regard to understanding others goal-directed reach actions by means of the mirror neuron system (MNS), and third, in relation to possible atypical development, with a specific focus on autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Study I shows that under monocular viewing conditions, infants at six, eight and 10 months of age perform slower and less accurate reaches. Longer times to object contact during monocular trials specifically imply that motor prediction is less effective when depth and distance information is compromised. Study II demonstrates that, by eight months of age, infants seem to have a MNS that functions in a similar manner to the adult MNS, thus activity can be registered over the motor cortex when infants simply observe an action they can master themselves. This activation is predictive, indicating anticipation of the goal of the observed reach. Study III indicates that infants at elevated familial risk for ASD present with reduced prospective motor control at 10 months of age. Compared to a low-risk control sample, high-risk infants perform reactive rather than predictive reach actions. Follow-up assessment at 36 months will show whether this measure can be used as a predictive diagnostic marker for ASD. The main contribution given by this work is the insight that it is important to take manual motor aspects into account when considering typical as well as atypical cognitive and social development, and in addition, that motor prediction is a key factor behind being able to timely execute and understand reaching actions.