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This paper explores how gender and veteran status effects the level of stigmatization around Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Participants were randomly assigned to one of four vignette conditions, which were distinguished by gender and veteran status. Participants were then asked to rate how they perceived the individual depicted in the vignette. The researchers analyzed the results by examining how the participants own report of gender, and masculinity, effected how each of the vignettes were judged. This paper addresses the stigma surrounding mental health in general, and more specifically how that stigma affects individuals suffering from PTSD across multiple domains. For the purposes of this paper, the domains of stigma explored include public stigma, social distancing, self-stigma and gender role conflict. Research indicates that PTSD is detrimental to both males and female veterans and civilians. In general, research suggests that males are more stigmatized than females and less likely to seek treatment (Addis & Mahalik, 2003; Good, et al., 1995). Individuals with a PTSD diagnosis may not seek services due to self-stigma, public-stigma, and social distancing (Corrigan & Watson, 2002; Girma et al., 2013; Gulliver et al., 2010; Link et al., 2002; Vogel et al., 2006; Weiner et al., 1988). Women are also more likely to be diagnosed with PTSD than men, and veterans are more likely to be diagnosed with PTSD than civilians (Breslau, 2001; Kessler et al., 1995; Olff et al., 2002). Although women are diagnosed with PTSD more frequently than men, research indicates that male veterans are the most stigmatized (Daoud, 2009; Mittal et al., 2007).

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ABSTRACT Effects of Racism and Discrimination on Personality Development among African American Male Repeat Offenders Tiffany Nicole Lockett Throughout history in the United States, the African American community has consistently been the victim of social policies put in place to disenfranchise this population (Mauer & Chesney-Lind, 2002; Painter, 2007; Parham, White & Ajamu, 1999). With a longstanding presence of systemic racism and discrimination, the criminal justice system and the dominant culture continues to pathologize this minority group and advocate for increased penalties which further stigmatize African Americans, particularly males in this group (Reiman, 1996; Russell, 1998). Though most criminology research focuses on higher rates of criminal offending within the African American population as the result of the intersection of race, poverty, education, and employment (Russell, 1996), few studies take into account the potential effects that regular exposure to racial discrimination may have on this population. Even fewer take into account how one's experience with racism and discrimination may impact personality development. The purpose of the study is to investigate a proposed causal link between racism and discrimination on criminal recidivism, using personality as an indirect variable to support this potential relationship. To do so, the study focuses on the criminal offending of an African American male population within a county probation system to explore how one's experience with racism and discrimination leads to the development of certain personality traits which then impact their criminal recidivism. As there is a significant dearth in the literature about the effects of racism and discrimination on this population, this study will provide a unique area of research on a population that has often fallen victim to deficit models in the field. After exploring the traditional research about the unique experiences of the African American community as a whole , this study aims to provide another perspective as to why this population is disproportionately represented in the criminal justice system by accounting for the potential impact of individual experiences of racism and discrimination of African American males. A number of hypotheses have been generated to account for the interaction between racism, personality, and recidivism within the African American male offending population. It was hypothesized that self-reported experiences with racism and discrimination would lead to lower scored traits of warmth, self-control, and rule-consciousness and subsequently lead to higher rates of repeat offending; conversely, experiences with racism and discrimination would also lead to higher scored traits of dominance and vigilance which then would lead to higher rates of repeat offending. A path analysis will be conducted to elucidate potential links between these variables. Structural equation models found partial support for the hypotheses. Implications and future directions in this study are discussed. Keywords: African American, racism, discrimination, microaggressions, recidivism, personality

Efforts to effectively combat discrimination require an understanding of how groups in power think about those experiencing prejudice and discrimination. To study how White individuals think about the discrimination faced by different racial groups (Non-Hispanic White, Black, Asian, Middle Eastern, Native and Indigenous, Latinx and Hispanic, and Mixed-Race men and women), 304 White participants completed an edited version of the Everyday Discrimination Scale and the Hypervigilance scale for each of these 14 groups to assess participants’ perceptions that these targets experience discrimination. Further, explicit attitudes towards each group were assessed with feelings thermometers. Results of our within subjects ANOVAs found that all racial groups were perceived to experience different levels of discrimination from one another, with Black targets perceived as experiencing the most discrimination and White targets the least. When analyzing intersectionally, we found Black men were perceived as experiencing the most discrimination, followed by Black women, White men perceived as experiencing the least discrimination with White women the second lowest group. Additionally, Asian women and Hispanic Latino men were perceived as facing more than their same race counterparts. Overall, these data indicate that White individuals perceive differences in the group levels of discrimination faced by racial-gender groups, and highlights the importance of an intersectional approach when studying race and gender discrimination.

With increased face mask usage globally following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is important to understand factors that influence mask wearing behavior. One factor that may influence mask wearing behavior is the degree to which they potentially impair emotion recognition. Previous research that has suggested that there may be cultural differences in facial regions that people in Japan and the United States attend to when inferring a target’s emotional state, whereby Japanese are more likely to look to the eyes and Americans are more likely to look at the mouth (Yuki et al., 2006 & Jack et al., 2012). Based on this prior research, we predicted that facial coverings concealing the mouth region would serve to impair emotion recognition, whereas in Japan facial coverings that conceal the eye region would serve to impair emotion recognition more so than for Americans. In Study 1, we examine whether people in Japan and the United States expect that they would have difficulty understanding others’ emotional expressions when the target wore a facial mask, or sunglasses. The results showed that Japanese participants reported higher mask wearing willingness and mask wearing norms compared to Americans. Additionally, results indicated that Americans reported higher perceived difficulty in emotion recognition when targets are wearing a face mask, while Japanese reported the reverse effect. In Study 2, we examined actual recognition rates, and found that while there were only small country differences in the degree to which mask-wearing impaired emotion recognition, Japanese emotion recognition was more impaired by sunglasses. We discuss implications and directions for future research.

The present study assessed the effects of differential language (English vs. heritage language) social skills in bilingual children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Four bilingual children with ASD (three Korean-American, and one Latino-American) participated in this study. Baseline consisted of 5-minute free-play sessions conducted in English. Intervention consisted of two alternating conditions: 5-minute play sessions conducted either in English or in the participant’s heritage language. A play-related instruction, contextually appropriate comment, and verbal praise were made every 30s during intervention. Dependent measures were play and social verbal behavior. Results demonstrated that participants displayed more play behaviors in heritage than English language sessions. No clear differences were found for social verbal behavior. Results are discussed in terms of the potential that the use of heritage language has in enhancing social skills interventions for children with ASD.

Although African Americans endorse more stigma towards those with mental illnesses than European Americans and are quite susceptible to stigma’s detrimental effects on help-seeking for mental health problems, stigma has not been adequately studied for African Americans. Given that stigma is a key barrier to obtaining help for mental health problems, it is imperative that we gain a more nuanced understanding of stigma. This study used experimental design and vignettes to examine the influence of acculturation and labeling on African Americans’ stigmatization of depression, social phobia, alcohol dependence, and schizophrenia. Results indicated that schizophrenia was generally the most stigmatized disorder and social phobia was least stigmatized. Having a label predicted increased desire for social distance from vignette subjects with depressive symptoms only. Additionally, acculturation predicted stigmatization of depression and social phobia.