Myogenic differentiation of muscle cells in culture is characterized by changes in morphology and in pattern of gene expression. When the myoblasts in culture are induced to diffrentiate either by cell to cell contact or by serum-starvation, a vast array of muscle tissue-specific genes including α-actin, are activated and is accompanied by a concomitant down-regulation of non-muscle genes such as, β- and γ-actins, tubulins etc.. The coordinate activation of muscle-specific genes is suggested to be mediated by cis-acting regulatory sequences in the muscle gene-promoters and muscle-tissue-specific DNA-binding proteins belonging to the MyoD class of regulators. But the mechanism behind the repression of non-muscle gene expression during differentiation has not yet been well understood. To date, no consensus has been achieved on the mechanism governing the down-regulation of β- actin gene, and no information is available on the regulation of -y-actin gene during muscle differentiation. The results from the present study showed that during differentiation of BC^3H1 cells the β- and γ-actins genes were down-regulated to ≈25% of their initial levels in undifferentiated cells. Measurement of half-life during differentiation indicated that the half-lives of both β- and γ-actins decreased to ≈25% of their original levels in myoblasts. These results suggest that changes in mRNA stability play an important role in the down-regulation of non-muscle actin genes. Second messengers and oncogenes are known to block the differentiation program of muscle cells. In the present study cAMP and ElA were observed to inhibit the down-regulation of β- and γ-actin genes in BC^3H1 cells. In both cAMP-and E1A- treated cells the β- and γ-actin mRNAs were found to have a higher half-life than the untreated differentiated BC^3H1 cells. This observation also suggests that mRNA stability might play an important role in the regulation of β- and γ-actin gene expression. The muscle-specific α-actin is activated by cell-cell contact and serum-starvation. Results in the present study suggested that cAMP was able to inhibit the activation of α-actin expression mediated by serum-starvation while it had no significant effect on the signal mediated by cell-cell contact. It is hypothesized that the two signals mediating a-actin activation might follow different intracellular signalling pathways. The effects of cAMP and E1A on the expression of muscle-specific and non-muscle actins could be a direct primary event or might be an indirect secondary event, mediated by other intracellular factors such as myogenin. The results showed that cAMP did not block the transcription of the myogenin while secondary evidences suggested that cAMP might negatively-regulate myogenin at a point downstream of transcription. E1A was observed to block the expression of myogenin gene suggesting that E1A might be mediating its effect through myogenin. Because the muscle-specific(α) and non-muscle(β- and γ-) isoforms were expressed both in the presence and in the absence of myogenin, myogenin's role in the regulation of actin genes is unclear. / Thesis / Master of Science (MS)

The post-natal regenerative capacity of skeletal muscle is attributed to myogenic satellite cells, which function as lineage-committed precursors to replace terminally differentiated muscle. The development and differentiation of the satellite cell lineage is regulated by Pax7 and the myogenic regulatory factors. While the expression of Pax7 is vital to the function of the satellite cell compartment, the paired domain alternative splicing events that regulate its DNA binding potential remain elusive. Interestingly, the generation of Pax7 splice variants differentially regulate Myf5 expression. We performed a global analysis of two Pax7 isoforms, which differ by a glycine-leucine dipeptide, to determine how paired domain splicing events modify the ability of Pax7 to regulate target genes. To this end, we observe that although the homeodomain is important for Pax7 binding, these isoform differences in the paired domain can regulate Pax7 targets during myogenesis. In addition to further examining the role of Pax7 during satellite cell proliferation and maintenance, it remains important to understand their downstream differentiation potential. Since activation of the canonical Wnt signalling pathway results in reduced regenerative efficiency in vivo, we undertook a global analysis of satellite cell derived myoblasts to examine their ability to respond to canonical Wnt signalling. We demonstrate that Wnt/β-Catenin signalling drives myogenic differentiation, via the myogenin-dependent control of follistatin expression, further fine-tuning the myogenic differentiation process. The effects of canonical Wnt signalling on myogenic differentiation complement our observations regarding Pax7 alternative splicing during myoblast proliferation and provide a greater comprehensive understanding of the molecular regulation of satellite cell development and differentiation during adult myogenesis.

Lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs) are metabolic diseases which occur as a result of a deficiency of one of the essential lysosomal enzymes, called glycohydrolases. A mutation in the gene encoding one of these enzymes leads to an accumulation of unwanted substrates, resulting in a variety of clinical manifestations. A common symptom found in LSDs is skeletal muscle dysfunction, which includes muscle weakness, atrophy and loss of muscle mass. The genes for lysosomal hydrolases are well characterized; however, much less is known about how mutations in these genes affect the cell and lead to the muscle dysfunction observed. One pathway of interest is autophagy; it has been shown to be essential for maintenance of skeletal muscles. This study sought to investigate the impact of LSDs on autophagy and how this may potentiate muscle dysfunction. We utilized in-vivo and in-vitro models of Sialidosis, Sandhoff Disease, and GM1-Gangliosidosis in order to assess autophagy and its impact on myogenic differentiation in skeletal muscles. Our results demonstrated that autophagy is induced upstream (ULK1 phosphorylation) but is inhibited at the autophagosome to lysosome fusion (p62 upregulation) in LSDs. We also found that myoblast fusion and myogenic differentiation are impaired. We conclude that blocking autophagy impairs myogenic differentiation, which potentiates the muscle dysfunction observed in LSDs. This work highlights autophagy as a new pathway of interest and possible therapeutic target to alleviate muscle dysfunction in LSDs, and other similar neurodegenerative diseases. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs) occur because of a deficiency of lysosomal glycohydrolases. A common symptom found in LSDs is skeletal muscle dysfunction. Little is known about how a deficiency of these enzymes leads to the clinical manifestations observed. However, one pathway of interest is autophagy. This study sought to investigate the impact of LSDs on autophagy and how this may potentiate muscle dysfunction. We utilized in-vivo and in-vitro models of LSDs to assess autophagy and its impact on myogenic differentiation in skeletal muscles. We demonstrated that autophagy is induced and blocked, and that myoblast fusion and myogenic differentiation is impaired. We concluded that the induction and block of autophagy impairs myogenic differentiation, which potentiates muscle dysfunction.

La myogénèse est un processus multi-étapes hautement régulé impliquant la prolifération et la différenciation de myoblastes. Bien que la myogenèse ait été largement décrite, les mécanismes de régulation qui régissent ce processus complexe sont encore mal connus, notamment les réseaux de gènes et les interactions potentielles entre les voies de signalisation impliquées. Afin d'identifier de nouveaux gènes jouant un rôle dans la différenciation myogénique, j’ai mis en place un nouveau protocole in vitro, basé sur la lignée myoblastique C2C12, l’utilisation de l’ARN interférence et l'analyse quantitative d'images d'une grande quantité de myoblastes différenciés. J’ai pu inactiver une centaine de gènes et par une analyse quantitative de la densité cellulaire, de la quantité de myotubes, de la morphologie du myotube et de l'indice de fusion, j’ai pu montrer que six gènes parmi les 100 sont impliqués à la fois dans la prolifération et la différenciation des cellules C2C12 et 13 gènes jouant un rôle uniquement dans l’étape de différenciation. Nos résultats montrent que notre crible peut être un outil efficace pour détecter aussi bien les phénotypes subtils permettant l'identification de nouveaux régulateurs myogéniques chez les mammifères. / Myogenesis is a highly regulated multi-step process involving myoblast proliferation and differentiation. Although studies over the last decades have identified several factors governing these distinct major phases, many of them are not yet known. In order to identify novel genes, we took advantage of the C2C12 myoblastic line to establish a functional siRNA screen combined with quantitative-imaging analysis of a large amount of differentiated myoblasts. We knocked down 100 mouse-preselected genes without a previously characterized role in muscle. Using image analysis, we tracked gene-silencing phenotypes by quantitative assessment of cellular density, myotube quantity, myotube morphology and fusion index. Our results have revealed six genes involved in both stages of C1C12 myogenesis and 13 genes specific to the differentiation stage. These findings prove that our RNAi-based screen could be an efficient tool to detect clear and subtle phenotypes allowing the identification of new myogenic regulators in Mammals.

Les protéines SREBP-1, Sterol Response Element Binding Proteins, sont des régulateurs clés du métabolisme des lipides et du cholestérol. A ce titre, ils ont été largement étudiés dans le foie et le tissu adipeux. Les facteurs SREBP-1 sont également exprimés dans le muscle squelettique au sein duquel ils sont les principaux médiateurs des effets géniques de l’insuline.Les travaux de thèse présentés dans ce manuscrit ont eu pour but de définir le rôle spécifique de SREBP-1 dans le muscle squelettique. L’étude transcriptomique de cellules musculaires humaines révèle plus de1500 gènes régulés par SREBP-1 dans le muscle squelettique humain, dont la moitié est réprimée. L’analyse fonctionnelle de ces gènes révèle l’implication de SREBP-1 dans des fonctions musculaires dépassant la cadre du métabolisme glucido-lipidique. Ainsi, SREBP-1 inhibe l’expression de plusieurs gènes impliqués dans la différenciation et le maintien du phénotype musculaire. En conséquence, la sur expression de SREBP-1 bloque la différenciation myogénique in vitro et induit une atrophie marquée in vitro, sur des myotubes différenciés et in Vivo, dans le muscle squelettique de souris.En parallèle, deux répresseurs transcriptionnels : BHLHB2 et BHLHB3 apparaissent, après étude de leur promoteur, comme deux nouvelles cibles directes de SREBP-1. Ainsi, 20% des gènes inhibés par SREBP-1sont des cibles de BHLHB2 et BHLHB3, de nombreux gènes muscle-spécifiques y compris. De plus, BHLHB2 apparaît, de la même façon que SREBP-1, comme un acteur essentiel dans l’action de l’insuline sur le muscle squelettique, et dans le développement de l’insulino-résistance musculaire chez les patients diabétiques de type2.Le blocage de la différenciation myogénique et l’atrophie induite par SREBP-1 in vitro étant reversées par l’inhibition de l’expression de BHLHB2 et BHLHB3, nous concluons que BHLHB2 et BHLHB3 sont responsables de l’effet répressif de SREBP-1 sur le phénotype musculaire.Ces résultats mettent donc en évidence un nouveau rôle pour les facteurs SREBP-1 dans la régulation de la myogenèse et le maintien de la masse musculaire. SREBP-1 intègrent ainsi la régulation métabolique au contrôle du phénotype musculaire / Transcription factors SREBP-1, Sterol Response Element Binding Proteins, are key regulators of lipid and cholesterol homeostasis. Their function has been largely studied in liver and adipose tissue, but they are also well expressed in skeletal muscle where they mediate insulin transcriptional effects.This work aims to define the muscle specific role of SREBP-1. Microarray analysis of human myotubes over-expressing SREBP-1 identifies more than 1500 SREBP-1 target genes in human skeletal muscle, including number of repressed genes. Gene ontology analysis reveals the involvement of SREBP-1 in a large variety of biological functions in muscle cells. In fact, SREBP-1 represses expression of a number of muscle-specific genes and markers of muscle differentiation. As a result, SREBP-1 over-expression leads to blockage of in vitro myogenic differentiation and marked atrophy in vitro as in Vivo.In the same time, we identified the transcriptional repressors BHLHB2 and BHLHB3 as new direct target genes of SREBP-1, by promoter analysis. 20% of SREBP-1 repressed genes are also target genes of BHLHB2 and BHLHB3. Furthermore, BHLHB2, like SREBP-1, is involved in insulin action on skeletal muscle and muscular insulin-resistance in type 2 diabetic patients.As SREBP-1 effects on atrophy and myogenic differentiation inhibition are reversed by silencing BHLHB2 and BHLHB3 expression, we can conclude that BHLHB2 and BHLHB3 mediate negative SREBP-1action on muscular phenotype.These results confer a new role for SREBP-1 in the regulation of muscle mass and muscle cell differentiation, thus linking the control of muscle mass to metabolic pathways

Les ARN hélicases DDX5 et DDX17 sont des protéines « multi-tâches », elles sont impliquées dans de nombreuses étapes de la régulation du métabolisme des ARNs dont la transcription, l’épissage et la dégradation des ARNs. Lors de processus biologiques complexes tels que la myogénèse, les programmes d’expression génique sont profondément modifiés. Durant mon travail de thèse, j’ai contribué à montrer que DDX5 et DDX17 sont des protéines orchestratrices de la différenciation en coordonnant de manière directe et dynamique plusieurs niveaux de régulation génique. DDX5 et DDX17 contrôlent l’activité du facteur de transcription MyoD, régulateur majeur de la myogénèse ainsi que des microARNs spécifiques du muscle miR-1 et miR-206. Ceux-ci ciblent et régulent en retour l’expression de DDX5 et DDX17 mettant en place une boucle de rétro-contrôle négative induisant la diminution d’expression de ces deux protéines au cours de la différenciation. Enfin, cette diminution d’expression permet la mise en place d’un programme d’épissage participant à l’acquisition de phénotypes morphologiques des cellules différenciées. D’un point de vue mécanistique, il apparaît qu’un sous-groupe des événements d’épissage régulés durant la différenciation est contrôlé par la coopération de DDX5 et DDX17 avec le facteur d’épissage hnRNP H/F. D’autre part, DDX5 a aussi été impliqué dans un contexte pathologique du muscle. Cette hélicase interagit avec la mutation responsable de la Dystrophie Myotonique de type 1 (DM1). Durant ma thèse, j’ai produit des résultats préliminaires suggérant un rôle de DDX5 dans la mise en place des défauts d’épissage observés dans cette pathologie / RNA helicases DDX5 and DDX17 are “multi-tasks” proteins involved in nearly all aspects of RNA metabolism such as transcription, splicing and RNA degradation. During complex biological processes like myogenesis, gene expression programs are deeply modified. During my PhD, I contributed to show that DDX5 and DDX17 are orchestrators of differentiation by dynamically and directly orchestrating several layers of gene expression. DDX5 and DDX17 control the activity of the transcription factor MyoD, master regulator of myogenesis, as well as the expression of miR1/206, muscle-specific micro-RNAs. During myogenesis, these miRNAs downregulate the protein expression of DDX5 and DDX17 in a negative feedback loop, contributing to the switch of splicing programs observed in differenciated cells. Mechanistically, this splicing subprogram appear to be in part regulated by DDX5 and DDX17 in cooperation with hnRNP H/F splicing factors. Moreover DDX5 has been involved in a pathological muscular pathology : Myotonic Dystrophy type 1 (DM1). This helicase interact with the DM1 pathological mutation. During my PhD, I produced preliminary results suggesting a role for DDX5 in the establishment of the splicing defects observed in DM1

Our understanding of protein lysine methyltransferases and their substrates remains limited despite their importance as regulators of the proteome. The SMYD (SET and MYND domain) methyltransferase family plays pivotal roles in various cellular processes, including transcriptional regulation and embryonic development. Among them, SMYD2 is associated with oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma, bladder cancer and leukemia as well as with embryonic development. Initially identified as a histone methyltransferase, SMYD2 was later reported to methylate p53, the retinoblastoma protein pRb and the estrogen receptor ERalpha and to regulate their activity. Our proteomic and biochemical analyses demonstrated that SMYD2 also methylates the molecular chaperone HSP90 on K209 and K615. We also showed that HSP90 methylation is regulated by HSP90 co-chaperones, pH, and the demethylase LSD1. Further methyltransferase assays demonstrated that SMYD2 methylates lysine K* in proteins which include the sequence [LFM]-₁-K*-[AFYMSHRK]+₁-[LYK]+₂. This motif allowed us to show that SMYD2 methylates the transcriptional co-repressor SIN3B, the RNA helicase DHX15 and the myogenic transcription factors SIX1 and SIX2. Finally, muscle cell models suggest that SMYD2 methyltransferase activity plays a role in preventing premature myogenic differentiation of proliferating myoblasts by repressing muscle-specific genes. Our work thus shows that SMYD2 methyltransferase activity targets a broad array of substrates in vitro and in situ and is regulated by intricate mechanisms.

Au cours de la myogenèse post-natale, la voie de signalisation de Notch participe au développement et à la régénération du muscle squelettique chez les mammifères. Elle permet le maintien de l'état prolifératif des myoblastes, contrôle la quiescence des cellules satellites in vivo et préserve une sous-population de cellules de réserve indifférenciées in vitro. L' activation de la voie et l'interaction du récepteur Notch avec ses ligands est dépendante de leur entité glucidique, notamment de leurs O-fucosylglycannes. La synthèse de ces derniers est initiée par la protéine O-fucosyltransférase 1 (Pofut1) qui greffe un O-fucose sur des domaines peptidiques particuliers appelés EGF-like. Bien que les acteurs moléculaires de la différenciation myogénique aient été largement étudiés par la communauté scientifique, la contribution de la glycosylation des protéines dans ce processus reste peu documentée. Une approche expérimentale in vitro basée sur l'utilisation de la lignée myoblastique murine C2C12 nous a permis d'identifier une expression importante de Pofut1 dans les cellules de réserve tandis qu' elle est restreinte dans les myotubes durant la différenciation myogénique. Plusieurs lignées de cellules C2C12 ont été générées pour qu' elles expriment de manière stable et différentielle Pofut1. Elles permettent ainsi d' évaluer l' importance du niveau d' expression de Pofut1 sur la différenciation myogénique.La sous-expression de Pofut1 réduit l' activation de la voie de signalisation de Notch conduisant à une entrée précoce des myoblastes dans le programme myogénique. Ceci a pour conséquence la dépletion des cellules de réserve Pax7+/MyoD- au profit d' une augmentation du nombre de myotubes. Des études morphométriques ont révélé un défaut d' accrétion nucléaire dans les myotubes sous-exprimant Pofut1, caractéristique d' une altération de la fusion secondaire. Ces observations sont accompagnées d' une diminution significative de l' expression du récepteur à l' interleukine 4 dans les cellules de reserve sous-exprimant Pofut1. Les lignées cellulaires ré-exprimant Pofut1 présentent une activation de la voie de signalisation de Notch et un processus de fusion myoblastique correctement restaurés.Ces travaux de thèse ont mis en exergue pour la première fois le rôle essentiel de Pofut1 dans le devenir cellulaire et la fusion des myoblastes au cours de la différenciation myogénique. / During post-natal myogenesis, Notch signaling pathway is involved in the development and regeneration of skeletal muscle in mammals. It maintains progenitor cell properties during the development of the myogenic lineage and controls the transition of satellite cells from a quiescent to an active state and preserves a subpopulation of reserve cells, in cell culture, in an undifferentiated state. The interaction between Notch and its ligands and the activation of this signaling is mainly controlled by the activity of protein O-fucosyltranferase 1 (Pofut1) and thus by the O-fucosylation state of the EGF-like repeats.Although the molecular players in myogenic differentiation have been extensively studied by the scientific community, the contribution of glycosylated proteins in this process remains poorly documented. An experimental in vitro study based on the C2C12 mouse myoblast cell line allowed us to identify a high expression of Pofut1 in reserve cells while a low expression was found in myotubes during myogenic differentiation. Several C2C12 cell lines were generated to express Pofut1 at different levels. They were used to evaluate the contribution of Pofut1 expression to the myogenic differentiation.The knockdown of Pofut1 repressed Notch signaling pathway activation leading to an earlier entrance of myoblasts in myogenic program. This resulted in the depletion of reserve cells Pax7+/MyoD- and an increase in the number of myotubes. Morphometric analysis revealed a nuclear accretion defect in Pofut1 knockdown myotubes. A significant decrease in the expression of the interleukin-4 receptor in Pofut1 knockdown reserve cells was also observed. Cell lines re-expressing correctly Pofut1 restored Notch signaling pathway and subsequently myoblast fusion process.This thesis work highlights, for the first time, the crucial role of Pofut1 in the cell fate decision and the fusion of myoblasts during myogenic differentiation.