Memory is subdivided into short- and long-term memory. The interaction between transcription factors (TF) and expressed genes are essential steps in memory formation. Some TFs that might be involved in memory formation include CREB, NF-kB and Egr-2. We hypothesized that there would be a difference in the expression levels of these TFs following learning in the Morris Water Maze (MWM). In study one, CD1 mice were categorized into two groups. Group 1 assigned as non-trained control group. Group 2 (experimental group) underwent 9 consecutive days of MWM training. In the second study, male C57BL/6 mice were categorized into four groups. Group 1 was a non-trained control group (allowed to swim randomly). Groups 2, 3, and 4 (experimental groups) had variations in their MWM training. Search strategies, escape latency, time spending in the target quadrant and number of attempts passing the missing platform, were measured. To evaluate the expression levels of TFs pre- versus post-learning, mice were sacrificed at the end of MWM. Hippocampi were separated and Western blot and immunohistochemical procedures were done. In study one, the escape latency decreased progressively toward the end of the acquisition phase in the trained group. The search pattern showed that the mice used primarily spatial strategies. Mice spent more time in the target quadrant during the retention phase. The number of passes over the missing platform peaked on the first day of the retention phase. NF-kB and CREB were expressed significantly higher in the control group versus the MWM trained mice (p = 0.0031 and p < 0.0001 respectively). There was no statistically significant difference in expression of Egr-2 between the two groups (p = 0.3092). In study two, Group 4 showed the highest and Group 1 the lowest levels of CREB expression. CREB and NF-kB were decreased following MWM training in study one. In study two CREB levels were highest in the Group 4 which had interval between the acquisition and retention phases. These differences could be due to multiphasic expression patterns and/or other experimental design issues. Further studies are warranted to examine time dependent differential expression of TFs in memory.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology / Philip R. Hardwidge / Microbial pathogens have evolved secretion systems to deliver arsenals of virulence proteins (effectors) to disrupt host homeostasis and manipulate host immune defenses. The best-characterized system mediating effector delivery into host cells is type III secretion system (T3SS) expressed by Gram-negative bacteria, including enteric pathogens enteropathogenic/enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EPEC/EHEC), Shigella, Yersinia, and Salmonella. Pathogen-host cell protein interactions within the host cell alter host cell signaling and ultimately subvert pathogen-induced inflammatory response. In the first project, we identified the Salmonella Secreted Effector L (SseL) that deubiquitinated ribosomal protein S3 (RPS3) to inhibit its nuclear translocation. RPS3 guides the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-B) subunits to specific B sites and plays an important role in the innate response to bacterial infection. Two E. coli effectors block RPS3 nuclear translocation. Non-locus-of-enterocyte-effacement (non-LEE) encoded effector NleH1 inhibits RPS3 phosphorylation by IKK-, an essential aspect of the RPS3 nuclear translocation process. NleC proteolysis of p65 generates an N-terminal p65 fragment that competes for full-length p65 binding to RPS3, thus also inhibiting RPS3 nuclear translocation. Thus, E. coli has multiple mechanisms by which to block RPS3-mediated transcriptional activation. With this in mind, we considered whether other enteric pathogens also encode T3SS effectors that impact this important host regulatory pathway. In this study, we report that SseL, which was previously shown to function as a deubiquitinase and inhibit NF-B signaling, also inhibits RPS3 nuclear translocation by deubiquitinating this important host transcriptional co-factor. RPS3 deubiquitination by SseL was restricted to K63-linkages and mutating the active-site cysteine of SseL abolished its ability to deubiquitinate and subsequently inhibit RPS3 nuclear translocation. Thus, Salmonella also encodes at least one T3SS effector that impacts RPS3 activities in the host nucleus. In the second project, we attempted to identify a cofactor involved in the interaction between E. coli effector NleH1 and host kinase the IB kinase- (IKK). The EHEC NleH1 effector inhibits NF-B pathway by reducing the nuclear translocation of RPS3. NleH1 prevents RPS3 phosphorylation by IKKIKK is a central kinase in the NF-B signaling pathway, yet the EHEC NleH1 effector only restricts the phosphorylation of a subset of the IKK substrates. We hypothesized that a protein cofactor might dictate the inhibitory specificity of NleH1 on IKK. We used mass spectrometry and determined that heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) interacts with both NleH1 and IKK, and that inhibiting Hsp90 activity reduces RPS3 nuclear translocation. In the third project, we focused on the crystal structures of Salmonella secreted effector SseK1 and SseK2 from Salmonella typhimurium SL1344, and non-LEE encoded effector NleB2 from E. coli O145:H28 and propose catalytic residues for arginine glycosylation. Salmonella SseK1 and SseK2 are E. coli NleB1 orthologs that behave as NleB1-like glycosyltransferases, although they differ in protein substrate specificity. The bacterial effectors SseK and NleB1 glycosylate host cell death domain target proteins on arginine residues that inhibits death receptor signaling. We report crystal structures of SseK1, SseK2, and NleB2 and found they are highly similar to each other and comprises three domains including helix-loop-helix (HLH), lid, and catalytic domain. His-Glu-Asn (HEN) motif in the active site is essential for enzyme catalysis. We observe differences between SseK1 and SseK2 in interactions with substrates and identify substrate residues that are important for enzyme recognition.

The nucleolus is a multifunctional organelle that, in addition to its primary role in ribosome biogenesis, has emerged as a critical stress sensor and coordinator of stress response. However, the molecular nature of how nucleoli sense stress and coordinate downstream cellular consequence remains poorly understood. NF-κB signalling is a critical regulator of stress response. Many cellular stresses that disrupt nucleolar function also stimulate the NF-κB pathway. However, the role of NF-κB as a downstream effector of nucleolar stress has not yet been examined. Aspirin, a known chemopreventative agent, stimulates the NF-κB pathway to mediate apoptosis but the upstream mechanisms are unclear. In this thesis, I identified a novel nucleolar stress response pathway that culminates in activation of NF-κB signalling, and demonstrated the significance of this nucleolar pathway in the anti-tumour effects of aspirin. Using multiple approaches, I made the novel observations that disruption of the Pol I complex activates the cytoplasmic NF-κB signalling pathway. I show that multiple stress stimuli of NF-κB pathway induce degradation of the crucial Pol I complex component, rDNA transcription initiation factor IA (TIF-IA). I identified the tumour suppressor, p14ARF and the Pol I complex component, upstream binding factor (UBF) as mediators of this degradation. I revealed that inhibition of CDK4 activity lies upstream of UBF/p14ARF-facilitated TIF-IA degradation. Furthermore, using different approaches I show that blocking aspirin/CDK4i-mediated degradation of TIF-IA blocks the effects of these agents on nucleolar morphology and NF-κB signalling. Finally, I show this nucleolar stress response pathway, containing a UBF/p14ARF/TIF-IA axis, is utilized by aspirin to kill colon cancer cells. Taken together, this data presented in this thesis advances understanding of nucleolar stress response, and has therapeutic implications with regard to the anti-tumour effects of aspirin.

A aterosclerose é uma doença cardiovascular (DCV) que afeta 4 em cada 1.000 pessoas, e é caracterizada por lesões arteriais inflamatórias que evoluem com o desenvolvimento da doença. Está envolvida neste processo uma alta produção de citocinas pró-inflamatórias cuja expressão é mediada pela ativação do fator de transcrição nuclear kappa B (NF-B), responsável por desencadear processos de proliferação celular e migração de células musculares lisas nas regiões de lesões arteriais, contribuindo para o agravamento da doença. Estudos de nosso laboratório mostraram que prostaglandinas ciclopentenônicas (CP-PGs), que são anti-inflamatórias, revertem as lesões ateromatosas em modelos animais, num processo que depende da indução de proteínas de choque térmico - HSP (do inglês Heat Shock Protein) por estas CP-PGs. HSPs impedem a desnaturação de proteínas intracelulares e “desligam” o fator nuclear NF-B, que é um dos principais envolvidos na doença inflamatória vascular da aterosclerose. Por isso, decidimos investigar o efeito direto da expressão de HSPs via choque térmico, no processo inflamatório da aterosclerose, pelo método de “hot tub” realizado semanalmente em camundongos machos nocaute para o receptor de LDL (KO-LDLr), em dieta hiperlipídica e hipercolesterolêmica. Para avaliar estes efeitos os animais foram semanalmente (num período de oito semanas) submetidos a um banho térmico elevando a temperatura corporal para 41,5°C por 15 min. Os resultados demonstraram que, na aorta torácica, o choque térmico aumentou a expressão da HSP70 em cerca de 50% o que foi acompanhado de aumento de 100% na expressão do fator de choque térmico – HSF e dramática queda na ativação do fator NF-kB (75%). Em paralelo, o choque térmico reduziu em mais de 50% a deposição de lípides na parede da aorta e na gordura epididimal e a lipoperoxidação em cerca de 40%. As análises com ultrassonografia Doppler demonstraram que o choque térmico melhorou o fluxo sanguíneo, reduziu a espessura da parede aórtica e melhorou a performance cardíaca. O tratamento também melhorou o status glicêmico (redução de glicemia de jejum e aumento de sensibilidade à insulina) além de reduzir significativamente os valores de colesterol total e LDL, aumentando a proporção de HDL. Os mecanismos envolvidos nestes efeitos benéficos do tratamento com choque térmico encontram-se em estudo em nosso laboratório. / Atherosclerosis is a cardiovascular disease (CVD) that affects four in every 1,000 people, and is characterized by inflammatory arterial lesions which evolve with the development of the disease. It is involved in this process a high production of proinflammatory cytokines whose expression is mediated by the activation of nuclear transcription factor kappa B (NF-B), responsible for triggering the processes of cell proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells into the arterial lesions, thus contributing to the worsening of the disease. Studies of our laboratory have shown that cyclopentenone prostaglandins (CP-PGs), which are anti-inflammatory, revert atherosclerotic lesions in animal models in a process that depends on the induction of heat shock proteins - HSPs by these CP-PGs. HSPs prevent denaturation of intracellular proteins and "turn off" nuclear factor NF-B, which is a major player involved in the inflammatory vascular disease that accompanies atherosclerosis. Therefore, we decided to investigate the effect of the direct expression of HSPs via heat shock, on the inflammatory process of atherosclerosis, by the "hot tub" method performed weekly in male mice knockout for the LDL receptor (LDLr-KO) under a high fat and hypercholesterolemic diet. To assess these effects, the animals were weekly subjected to a thermal bath (for a period of eight weeks) by raising the body temperature to 41.5 ° C for 15 min. The results demonstrated that in the thoracic aorta, the heat shock increased HSP70 expression approximately 50%, which was accompanied by an increase of 100% in the expression of heat shock factor - HSF and a dramatic decrease in the activation of nuclear factor NF-kB (75%). In parallel, heat shock decreased by more than 50% lipid deposition in the aortic wall and in the epididymal fat, and lipid peroxidation by about 40%. Ultrasound with Doppler analysis showed that heat shock improved blood flow, reduced thickness of the aortic wall and improved cardiac performance. The treatment also improved the glycemic status (reduction of fasting blood glucose and increased insulin sensitivity) and significantly lower levels of total and LDL cholesterol and by increasing the rates of HDL. The mechanisms involved in these beneficial effects of treatment with heat shock are under investigation in our laboratory.

La cryptosporidiose est une zoonose intestinale qui affecte les ruminants nouveau-nés et les individus immunodéficients (enfants, immunodéprimés) et pour laquelle les traitements sont limités et ne sont pas totalement efficaces. Le développement du parasite peut être contrôlé par une réponse immunitaire protectrice dans laquelle les productions d’IL-12 et d’IFNγ sont prépondérantes. Les laboratoires AIM, IPV et la société VitamFero ont décidé de mettre leurs compétences en commun pour évaluer si l’administration d’une souche vaccinale de Toxoplasma gondii atténuée (Toxo Mic1-3KO) pouvait permettre de stimuler efficacement le système immunitaire des nouveau-nés et favoriser le contrôle de la cryptosporidiose. La première partie des travaux de ma thèse Cifre a permis d’obtenir une preuve de concept. En effet, des expérimentations préliminaires sur souriceaux et agneaux dans lesquelles la souche Toxo Mic1-3KO s’était développée suffisamment montraient une diminution de la charge parasitaire suite à une infection d’épreuve par C. parvum. Fort de ces résultats, nous avons souhaité développer deux axes complémentaires pour nous aider à améliorer la souche vaccinale et son utilisation chez les nouveau-nés. / Cryptosporidiosis is a zoonotic disease that affects newborn ruminants and young or immunocompromised individuals and for which treatments are limited and are not fully effective. Parasite development can be controlled by a protective immune response in which IL-12 and IFN-gamma productions are essentials. Laboratories AIM, IPV and VitamFero Start-up Company decided to pool their skills to evaluate whether the administration of an attenuated vaccine strain of Toxoplasma gondii (MIC1-3KO) could stimulate the immune system of neonates and favor the control of cryptosporidiosis. The first part of the work of my Cifre thesis was performed to obtain a proof of concept. Indeed, preliminary experiments on mice and lambs in which MIC1-3KO strain had developed sufficiently showed a decrease in parasite burden following an infectious challenge with C. parvum. Based on these encouraging results we decided to develop two complementary approaches to further improve the vaccine strain and our knowledge on newborn immune response to T.

A aterosclerose é uma doença cardiovascular (DCV) que afeta 4 em cada 1.000 pessoas, e é caracterizada por lesões arteriais inflamatórias que evoluem com o desenvolvimento da doença. Está envolvida neste processo uma alta produção de citocinas pró-inflamatórias cuja expressão é mediada pela ativação do fator de transcrição nuclear kappa B (NF-B), responsável por desencadear processos de proliferação celular e migração de células musculares lisas nas regiões de lesões arteriais, contribuindo para o agravamento da doença. Estudos de nosso laboratório mostraram que prostaglandinas ciclopentenônicas (CP-PGs), que são anti-inflamatórias, revertem as lesões ateromatosas em modelos animais, num processo que depende da indução de proteínas de choque térmico - HSP (do inglês Heat Shock Protein) por estas CP-PGs. HSPs impedem a desnaturação de proteínas intracelulares e “desligam” o fator nuclear NF-B, que é um dos principais envolvidos na doença inflamatória vascular da aterosclerose. Por isso, decidimos investigar o efeito direto da expressão de HSPs via choque térmico, no processo inflamatório da aterosclerose, pelo método de “hot tub” realizado semanalmente em camundongos machos nocaute para o receptor de LDL (KO-LDLr), em dieta hiperlipídica e hipercolesterolêmica. Para avaliar estes efeitos os animais foram semanalmente (num período de oito semanas) submetidos a um banho térmico elevando a temperatura corporal para 41,5°C por 15 min. Os resultados demonstraram que, na aorta torácica, o choque térmico aumentou a expressão da HSP70 em cerca de 50% o que foi acompanhado de aumento de 100% na expressão do fator de choque térmico – HSF e dramática queda na ativação do fator NF-kB (75%). Em paralelo, o choque térmico reduziu em mais de 50% a deposição de lípides na parede da aorta e na gordura epididimal e a lipoperoxidação em cerca de 40%. As análises com ultrassonografia Doppler demonstraram que o choque térmico melhorou o fluxo sanguíneo, reduziu a espessura da parede aórtica e melhorou a performance cardíaca. O tratamento também melhorou o status glicêmico (redução de glicemia de jejum e aumento de sensibilidade à insulina) além de reduzir significativamente os valores de colesterol total e LDL, aumentando a proporção de HDL. Os mecanismos envolvidos nestes efeitos benéficos do tratamento com choque térmico encontram-se em estudo em nosso laboratório. / Atherosclerosis is a cardiovascular disease (CVD) that affects four in every 1,000 people, and is characterized by inflammatory arterial lesions which evolve with the development of the disease. It is involved in this process a high production of proinflammatory cytokines whose expression is mediated by the activation of nuclear transcription factor kappa B (NF-B), responsible for triggering the processes of cell proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells into the arterial lesions, thus contributing to the worsening of the disease. Studies of our laboratory have shown that cyclopentenone prostaglandins (CP-PGs), which are anti-inflammatory, revert atherosclerotic lesions in animal models in a process that depends on the induction of heat shock proteins - HSPs by these CP-PGs. HSPs prevent denaturation of intracellular proteins and "turn off" nuclear factor NF-B, which is a major player involved in the inflammatory vascular disease that accompanies atherosclerosis. Therefore, we decided to investigate the effect of the direct expression of HSPs via heat shock, on the inflammatory process of atherosclerosis, by the "hot tub" method performed weekly in male mice knockout for the LDL receptor (LDLr-KO) under a high fat and hypercholesterolemic diet. To assess these effects, the animals were weekly subjected to a thermal bath (for a period of eight weeks) by raising the body temperature to 41.5 ° C for 15 min. The results demonstrated that in the thoracic aorta, the heat shock increased HSP70 expression approximately 50%, which was accompanied by an increase of 100% in the expression of heat shock factor - HSF and a dramatic decrease in the activation of nuclear factor NF-kB (75%). In parallel, heat shock decreased by more than 50% lipid deposition in the aortic wall and in the epididymal fat, and lipid peroxidation by about 40%. Ultrasound with Doppler analysis showed that heat shock improved blood flow, reduced thickness of the aortic wall and improved cardiac performance. The treatment also improved the glycemic status (reduction of fasting blood glucose and increased insulin sensitivity) and significantly lower levels of total and LDL cholesterol and by increasing the rates of HDL. The mechanisms involved in these beneficial effects of treatment with heat shock are under investigation in our laboratory.

A aterosclerose é uma doença cardiovascular (DCV) que afeta 4 em cada 1.000 pessoas, e é caracterizada por lesões arteriais inflamatórias que evoluem com o desenvolvimento da doença. Está envolvida neste processo uma alta produção de citocinas pró-inflamatórias cuja expressão é mediada pela ativação do fator de transcrição nuclear kappa B (NF-B), responsável por desencadear processos de proliferação celular e migração de células musculares lisas nas regiões de lesões arteriais, contribuindo para o agravamento da doença. Estudos de nosso laboratório mostraram que prostaglandinas ciclopentenônicas (CP-PGs), que são anti-inflamatórias, revertem as lesões ateromatosas em modelos animais, num processo que depende da indução de proteínas de choque térmico - HSP (do inglês Heat Shock Protein) por estas CP-PGs. HSPs impedem a desnaturação de proteínas intracelulares e “desligam” o fator nuclear NF-B, que é um dos principais envolvidos na doença inflamatória vascular da aterosclerose. Por isso, decidimos investigar o efeito direto da expressão de HSPs via choque térmico, no processo inflamatório da aterosclerose, pelo método de “hot tub” realizado semanalmente em camundongos machos nocaute para o receptor de LDL (KO-LDLr), em dieta hiperlipídica e hipercolesterolêmica. Para avaliar estes efeitos os animais foram semanalmente (num período de oito semanas) submetidos a um banho térmico elevando a temperatura corporal para 41,5°C por 15 min. Os resultados demonstraram que, na aorta torácica, o choque térmico aumentou a expressão da HSP70 em cerca de 50% o que foi acompanhado de aumento de 100% na expressão do fator de choque térmico – HSF e dramática queda na ativação do fator NF-kB (75%). Em paralelo, o choque térmico reduziu em mais de 50% a deposição de lípides na parede da aorta e na gordura epididimal e a lipoperoxidação em cerca de 40%. As análises com ultrassonografia Doppler demonstraram que o choque térmico melhorou o fluxo sanguíneo, reduziu a espessura da parede aórtica e melhorou a performance cardíaca. O tratamento também melhorou o status glicêmico (redução de glicemia de jejum e aumento de sensibilidade à insulina) além de reduzir significativamente os valores de colesterol total e LDL, aumentando a proporção de HDL. Os mecanismos envolvidos nestes efeitos benéficos do tratamento com choque térmico encontram-se em estudo em nosso laboratório. / Atherosclerosis is a cardiovascular disease (CVD) that affects four in every 1,000 people, and is characterized by inflammatory arterial lesions which evolve with the development of the disease. It is involved in this process a high production of proinflammatory cytokines whose expression is mediated by the activation of nuclear transcription factor kappa B (NF-B), responsible for triggering the processes of cell proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells into the arterial lesions, thus contributing to the worsening of the disease. Studies of our laboratory have shown that cyclopentenone prostaglandins (CP-PGs), which are anti-inflammatory, revert atherosclerotic lesions in animal models in a process that depends on the induction of heat shock proteins - HSPs by these CP-PGs. HSPs prevent denaturation of intracellular proteins and "turn off" nuclear factor NF-B, which is a major player involved in the inflammatory vascular disease that accompanies atherosclerosis. Therefore, we decided to investigate the effect of the direct expression of HSPs via heat shock, on the inflammatory process of atherosclerosis, by the "hot tub" method performed weekly in male mice knockout for the LDL receptor (LDLr-KO) under a high fat and hypercholesterolemic diet. To assess these effects, the animals were weekly subjected to a thermal bath (for a period of eight weeks) by raising the body temperature to 41.5 ° C for 15 min. The results demonstrated that in the thoracic aorta, the heat shock increased HSP70 expression approximately 50%, which was accompanied by an increase of 100% in the expression of heat shock factor - HSF and a dramatic decrease in the activation of nuclear factor NF-kB (75%). In parallel, heat shock decreased by more than 50% lipid deposition in the aortic wall and in the epididymal fat, and lipid peroxidation by about 40%. Ultrasound with Doppler analysis showed that heat shock improved blood flow, reduced thickness of the aortic wall and improved cardiac performance. The treatment also improved the glycemic status (reduction of fasting blood glucose and increased insulin sensitivity) and significantly lower levels of total and LDL cholesterol and by increasing the rates of HDL. The mechanisms involved in these beneficial effects of treatment with heat shock are under investigation in our laboratory.

Meduloblastoma é um câncer do sistema nervoso central, altamente invasivo, de origem embrionária, localizado no cerebelo. É mais comum em crianças e corresponde a aproximadamente 20% de todos os tumores intracranianos pediátricos. Os tratamentos mais utilizados são cirurgia e quimioterapia, sendo que a radioterapia é aplicada somente em crianças com mais de 3 anos devido aos seus efeitos colaterais. Diversos estudos têm mostrado o papel do NF-B na regulação de genes envolvidos com o processo neoplásico. NF-B é um fator de transcrição chave na regulação da resposta imune e no processo de inflamação e está envolvido na regulação da transcrição de um grande número de genes relacionados ao processo de tumorigênese, além de ser constitutivamente ativo em diversos tipos de câncer, sendo um importante potencial alvo terapêutico. O DHMEQ (Dehidroximetilepoxiquinomicina) é uma droga que inibe a translocação do NF-B do citoplasma para o núcleo, inibindo assim a sua atuação como ativador transcricional. Vários trabalhos tem mostrado os efeitos antineoplásicos do DHMEQ em inúmeros tipos tumorais, entretanto, não há trabalhos que evidenciem esses efeitos em meduloblastoma. Assim, o presente estudo objetivou avaliar os efeitos dessa droga nas linhagens UW402, UW473 e ONS-76 de meduloblastoma pediátrico através de estudos funcionais e moleculares. Os resultados de proliferação demostraram uma significativa diminuição do crescimento celular nas linhagens de meduloblastoma, inibindo cerca de 80, 70 e 60% nas linhagens UW402, UW473 e ONS-76, respectivamente, na dose de 20 g/mL, e apresentou um IC50 de 10g/mL em 48h para as linhagens UW402 e UW473 e em 72h na linhagem ONS-76. Adicionalmente, elevou o nível de apoptose para 50, 17 e 31% nessas linhagens, respectivamente, inibiu fortemente a capacidade clonogênica, a migração e a invasão celular nas três linhagens e foi sinérgico na combinação com outros quimioterápicos em grande parte dos pontos de combinação, além de radiossensibilizar fortemente as três linhagens. Os resultados são congruentes com o potencial efeito antitumoral de DHMEQ. / Medulloblastoma is a cancer of the central nervous system, highly invasive, of embryonic origin, located in the cerebellum. It is more common among children and accounts for approximately 20% of all pediatric intracranial tumors. The most common treatments are surgery and chemotherapy, and radiotherapy is only to children older than 3 years old due to its side effects. Several studies have demonstrated the role of NF-B in the regulation of genes involved in the neoplastic process. NF-B is a key transcription factor in the regulation of immune response and inflammation process, and it is involved in the transcriptional regulation of a large number of genes related to the tumorigenesis process, and constitutively active in many types of cancer, being an important potential therapeutic target. DHMEQ (Dehidroximetilepoxiquinomicina) is a drug that inhibits the translocation of NF-B from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, thus inhibiting its activity as a transcriptional activator. Several studies have shown the antineoplastic effects of DHMEQ in numerous tumor types, however, there is no surveys that have tested their effects in medulloblastoma. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the effects of this drug in UW402, UW473 and ONS-76 pediatric medulloblastoma cell lines through functional and molecular studies. The proliferation test results demonstrated a significant decrease in the cell growth in the medulloblastoma cell lines, inhibiting approximately 80, 70 and 60% for UW402, UW473 and ONS-76, respectively, at a dose of 20g/mL, and showed an IC50 of 10g/mL at 48h for UW402 and UW473 and at 72h in ONS-76. Additionally, increased the level of apoptosis to 50, 17 and 31% in these cell lines, respectively, strongly inhibited the clonogenic capacity, the migration and cell invasion in the three lines and it was synergistic in combination with other chemotherapeutic agents in most combination points, and radiosensitization strongly the three cell lines. The results are congruent with the potential antitumor effect of DHMEQ.

Background: Despite multi-modality therapy, the majority of patients with metastatic or recurrent Ewing sarcoma (ES), the second most common pediatric bone malignancy, will die of their disease. ES tumors express aberrantly activated ETS transcription factors through translocations that fuse the EWS gene to ETS family genes FLI1 or ERG. The aberrant activation of ETS transcription factors promotes malignant transformation and proliferation. While, FLI1 or ERG cannot be readily targeted, there is an opportunity to deploy functional genomics screens, to develop novel therapeutic approaches by identifying targetable liabilities in EWS/FLI1 dependent tumors. Materials and Methods: We performed a near whole-genome pooled shRNA screen in a panel of five EWS/FLI1 dependent Ewing sarcoma cell lines and one EWS/ERG cell line to identify essential genes. Essential genes were defined as those genes whose loss resulted in reduced viability selectively in ES cells compared to non-Ewing cancer cell lines. Essential hits were subsequently validated with genomic knockdown and chemical inhibition in vitro, followed by validation of the on-target effect of chemical inhibition. Next, we determined the in vivo effects of small-molecule inhibition on survival and tumor growth in NOD scid gamma (NSG) mice with established subcutaneous ES xenografts. Results: Top hits in our screen that could be readily targeted by small-molecule inhibitors, and thus have potential for rapid clinical validation, were selected for further investigation. These hits included IKBKE, CCND1 and CDK4. IKBKΕ, a non-canonical IKK with an oncogenic role in breast cancer, was one of the top kinase hits in the screen. IKBKΕ shares significant homology to TBK1, another non-canonical IKK that is essential in k-RAS dependent lung cancer. We validated IKBKE through small-molecule inhibition of IKBKE/TBK1 and shRNA based knockdown. Ewing sarcoma cell lines are sensitive to low micromolar concentrations of two IKBKE/TBK1 inhibitors (CYT387 and MRT67307). Additionally, in a panel of ES cell lines, knockdown of IKBKE resulted in decreased growth and impaired colony formation. These observations, paired with impairment of NF-κB nuclear localization following CYT387 treatment suggests that non-canonical IKK mediated signaling may be essential in Ewing sarcoma. We further validated these results through inhibition of IKBKE/TBK1 in in vivo xenograft models treated with 100 mg/kg/day of CYT387. Treatment over the course of twenty-nine days resulted in a significant increase in survival (p-value = 0.0231) and a significant decrease (p-value = 0.036) in tumor size after fifteen days of treatment. CDK4 and CCND1 are highly expressed in Ewing sarcoma as compared to other tumor types. shRNA mediated knockdown of CDK4 and CCND1 resulted in impaired viability and anchorage independent growth. Furthermore, treatment of Ewing sarcoma cell lines with a highly selective CDK4/6 inhibitor, LEE011, resulted in decreased viability (IC50 range of 0.26-18.06 μM), potent G1 arrest in six of eight EWS/FLI1 containing Ewing sarcoma lines tested and apoptosis in a panel of four highly sensitive lines. Administration of 75 mg/kg/day and 250 mg/kg/day of LEE011 in NSG mice with Ewing xenografts resulted in significant impairment of tumor growth, (p-value <0.001 for both treatment arms), as compared to vehicle control. Conclusions: These studies suggest a role for the targeting of IKBKE and CDK 4/6 in Ewing sarcoma, findings with immediate clinical relevance for patients with this malignancy, because small-molecule inhibitors of these proteins have already entered clinical trial for other disease indications.

Skeletal muscle atrophy is a debilitating condition caused by pathological conditions including cancer cachexia, disuse and denervation. Disuse atrophy is characterized by reduction in fiber size, fiber-type change and induction of markers of atrophy such as MuRF1 and Fn14. Recent studies have focused on understanding the fundamental role of signalling pathways and the proteolytic system in response to muscle atrophy. Unfortunately the exact mechanisms behind atrophy remain poorly understood. I recently demonstrated that cIAP1 and/or cIAP2 proteins are critical regulators of NF-kB activation, which has been shown to be involved in skeletal muscle atrophy. Here, I used genetic and pharmacological means to investigate the role of cIAP1 in a denervation-induced skeletal muscle atrophy model. Interestingly, I found that upon denervation loss of cIAP1 rescues muscle fiber size, prevents fiber-type changing and inhibits the expression of MuRF1 and Fn14. Moreover, treatment of mice with Smac mimetic compounds (SMC), a novel class of small molecule IAP antagonists, showed successful knockdown of cIAP1 in muscle and protects against denervation-induced muscle atrophy. Taken together, these data reveal that cIAP1 is both a novel mediator of skeletal muscle atrophy and an important therapeutic target.