Dans cette thèse, nous étudions des systèmes nano-électro-mécaniques (NEMS) en conditions cryogéniques (de 30 mK à 30 K) sensibles à des conditions de fluctuations ou de désordre. Les phénomènes fondamentaux étudiés sont omniprésents dans la physique des NEMS, et pour certains vont même au-delà avec des analogies vers d’autres disciplines de la physique, comme les transitions de phase ou la RMN.Dans la première partie de cette thèse, nous nous intéressons ainsi au bruit d'amplitude du NEMS, fournissant un exemple de mouvement Brownien dans un potentiel de confinement. Du fait de la non-linéarité géométrique intrinsèque au système, l'anharmonicité du potentiel transduit le mouvement Brownien de chaque mode mécanique en fluctuations des fréquences propres de résonance. Ainsi, nous observons expérimentalement un phénomène de diffusion spectrale, se traduisant par un élargissement et un décalage de la raie de résonance non-triviaux rendant compte de la compétition entre la diffusion de la phase de la réponse du mode due à la transduction, et les mécanismes de relaxation du mode fluctuant. Une approche par intégrale de chemin de la diffusion capture l'effet analytiquement. Un tel mécanisme altère la résonance d'un mode mécanique sans influer sur les échanges d'énergie avec le bain thermodynamique du mode. En outre, l'introduction d'une forte excitation sinusoïdale agit en retour sur les fluctuations hors équilibre via la non-linéarité, ralentissant la dynamique du système et comprimant ses fluctuations pour certains points critiques de l'espace des paramètres, près du ou dans le régime de la réponse bistable permise par la non-linéarité. Enfin, des expériences-modèles ont été réalisées afin de comprendre en détail la décohérence mécanique classique à l’aide d’un bruit en fréquence extrinsèque, réalisé à l’aide d’une grille couplée au NEMS.La deuxième partie de cette thèse explore plus en détail certains mécanismes microscopiques de relaxation d'énergie ou du bruit en fréquence interne d’un mode mécanique, encore partiellement incompris pour les NEMS. Nous considérons d’abord le cas d’une contribution extérieure, mais universelle, qui a pour origine le transfert d’impulsion entre le NEMS et le gaz présent dans la cellule expérimentale, ici l’hélium 4. Dans la limite des faibles densités, la théorie cinétique décrit la dissipation dans le gaz ballistique. De façon inattendue, nous observons aux plus basses pressions atteignables une déviation à la théorie. Nous montrons pour plusieurs températures et plusieurs échantillons que cette déviation s’échelonne avec le rapport entre le libre parcours moyen des atomes dans le gaz et la hauteur du NEMS vis-à-vis du fond de l’échantillon. Ce résultat est justifié par un modèle phénoménologique prenant en compte la réflexion diffusive des atomes du gaz sur le mur du fond, qui présente à petite échelle une structure désordonnée. Cette réflexion résulte en une déviation à la Maxwellienne près du fond, et donc en l’établissement d’un gradient de densité du gaz sur une longueur de l’ordre du libre parcours moyen, qui renormalise le taux de relaxation d’énergie mécanique. Ainsi, le NEMS agit comme une sonde non-invasive d’un milieu hors équilibre du fait de ses très petites dimensions transverses. Enfin, nous mesurons la dissipation intrinsèque du NEMS jusqu’à 30 milliKelvin. Nous mettons en évidence le rôle des excitations de basse énergie couplées à la déformation du NEMS dans la relaxation d’énergie mécanique. Ces excitations, permises par la structure désordonnée des matériaux constitutifs du NEMS, sont modélisées comme des atomes se déplaçant par effet tunnel entre deux positions équivalentes du réseau atomique (TLS). Nous obtenons également le bruit en fréquence intrinsèque en développant une nouvelle technique de mesure utilisant la non-linéarité du NEMS. L’étude poussée nous permet de lier phénoménologiquement les deux phénomènes. / In this thesis we address cryogenic nano-electro-mechanical systems (NEMS) from 30 mK to 30 K sensitive to conditions involving fluctuations or disorder. The fundamental aspects studied are ubiquitous in NEMS physics, and for some of them go beyond, with possible analogies with phase transitions or NMR.In the first part of this work we focus on the NEMS position noise, which is a good example of Brownian motion within a confinement potential. Owing to the system’s intrinsic geometric nonlinearity, the potential anharmonicity translates each mode’s Brownian motion into fluctuations of the structure’s resonance eigenfrequencies. As a result we observe experimentally a spectral diffusion phenomenon that manifests through a linewidth broadening and a frequency shift of the resonance line: they account non-trivially for the competition between the probed mode’s response’s phase diffusion due to the transduction mechanism and the fluctuating modes relaxation mechanisms. A path integral approach to diffusion encompasses analytically the effect. Such a mechanism alters a mechanical mode’s resonance without changing energy transfers to the mode’s thermal bath. Furthermore, adding a strong sinusoidal excitation acts back on the out-of-equilibrium fluctuations through the nonlinearity: the system dynamics is slowed down, with its fluctuations squeezed, in peculiar points of the parameters space, near or within the non-linearity induced bistable regime. Finally, model experiments are realized so as to understand classical mechanical decoherence, through the use of an extrinsic frequency noise, artificially crafted thanks to a gate electrode coupled to the NEMS.In a second part, some microscopic mechanisms leading to mechanical damping and internal frequency noise of a mechanical mode are investigated, as they are still elusive to date for NEMS. We first consider the case of an external but universal source of damping, which originates from the momentum transfer between the NEMS and the gas flowing in the experimental cell, here Helium 4. In the rarefied limit, dissipation in a ballistic gas is well described by kinetic theory. Yet, unexpectedly, we observe at our lowest pressures a discrepancy between our measurements and theory. We show for several temperatures and samples that this deviation scales with the ratio between the gas atoms mean free path and the gap between the NEMS and the sample’s bottom trench. This result is modelled phenomenologically as arising from diffusive scattering of gas atoms at the bottom’s wall, which at small lengthscales has a disordered landscape. Diffusive scattering results in a deviation to the Maxwellian distribution, leading to a gas density gradient in the vicinity of the wall, established over a distance comparable with the mean free path, and which renormalizes the mechanical energy relaxation rate. Therefore, the NEMS acts as a non-invasive probe in a nonequilibrium medium due to its small cross-section. Finally, we investigate the NEMS intrinsic dissipation down to 30 milliKelvin. We highlight the role of low-energy excitations coupled to the NEMS deformation in damping mechanisms. These excitations, allowed by the disordered structure of the NEMS constitutive materials, are modelled as atoms tunneling between two equivalent positions of the atomic lattice (also referred to as TLS). Using a new technique which relies on the NEMS non-linearity, we measure the intrinsic frequency noise, and we show that it can be linked phenomenologically to the damping due to the TLS.

Le graphène possède un gaz bidimensionnel de porteurs de charge stable et exposé à l'environnement sans aucune protection. Par conséquent, ses performances électriques sont extrêmement sensibles aux conditions environnementales, notamment aux impuretés chargées et aux corrugations imposées par le substrat sous-jacent. Ces éléments ont une contribution majeure dans la dégradation des propriétés de transport électronique du matériau.L'objectif de cette thèse est d'explorer par diverses techniques des méthodes pour atténuer ces effets par optimisation de son environnement direct.La première méthode consiste à reporter le graphènesur une couche neutre d'un cristal de nitrure de bore hexagonal (BN). Diverses techniques de fabrication d'empilement de Graphène sur BN sont présentées, notamment la croissance directe de graphène sur un cristal de BN exfolié sur un substrat catalytique qui aboutit à la formation d'empilements de structure bien contrôlée. Les échantillons sont mesurés à très basse température. Les effets de localisation faible mesurés par magnéto-transport montrent une amélioration nette des performances notamment de la longueur de cohérence et de la mobilité électronique par rapport à un échantillon de référence constitué du même ruban de graphène déposé sur substrat conventionnel de silicium oxydé.La deuxième technique consiste à isoler le graphène de son support par surgravure de la silice et suspension du graphène sous la forme d'une membrane autosupportée et tenue par ses extrémités. Après avoir introduit des techniques de fabrication spécifiques, les mesures de transport et le couplage à des modes de vibration mécanique sont étudiés température variable. Ces données permettent notamment une mesure du coefficient d'expansion thermique du graphène. / Charge carriers in graphene form stable two-dimensional gases which are fully exposed to the environment. As a consequence, the electrical performance of graphene is strongly affected by surface charged impurities as well as topographic perturbations inherited from the underlying substrate.This thesis addresses several methods to circumvent that issue.The first method consists in embedding graphene in an optimized environment by depositing graphene onto some neutral and crystalline material. Novel 2D insulating materials such as hexagonal boron nitride buffer layer (BN) appears as ideal substrates to get rid of detrimental effect of interfacial charges and corrugation. Several fabrication schemes of Graphene/BN stacks are shown including some direct in-situ growth of graphene on BN crystal using an innovative proximity-driven chemical vapour growth based on BN exfoliation on copper. In order to explore the effects of the improved substrate on the transport properties of graphene, we have performed low temperature magneto-transport studies on these stacks. We present a direct comparison of weak localization signals with those acquired on a graphene/silica reference device. A clear increase of the coherence length is shown on Graphene/BN stacks together with improved electronic mobility and charge neutrality.Removing the substrate and suspending graphene is another approach for optimization of the graphene environment which forms the second topic covered in this thesis. After introducing an improved recipe for preserving the quality of graphene throughout an elaborate fabrication process, we probe the room- and low-temperature performance of the nano-electro-mechanical devices based on doubly clamped suspended graphene ribbons. The obtained data are used for characterizing the thermal expansion of CVD graphene.

The work presented here has a multidisciplinary character, having as a common factor the characterization of self-assembled nanostructures through force spectroscopy. Exploring AFM as a tool for characterizing self-assembly and interaction forces in soft matter nanostructures, three different Bio and nonbiological systems where investigated, all of them share the common characteristic of being soft matter molecular structures at the nanoscale. The studied systems in question are: a) Polyelectrolyte – lipid nanocomposites. Single polyelectrolyte adsorption-desorption from supported lipid bilayers, b) Polyelectrolyte brushes and c) Virus-Like particles (VLPs). The scientific interest and industrial applications for each of these different nanostructures is broad, and their potential uses in the near future ranges from smart nanocontainers for drug and gene delivery, surface platforms for molecular recognition to the development of new nanodevices with ultrasensitive external stimuli responsiveness. These nano-structures are constructed following assembly of smaller subunits and belong to representative examples of soft matter in modern nanotechnology. The stability, behavior, properties and long term durability of these self-organized structures depends strongly on the environmental conditions to which they are exposed since their building mechanism is a balance between attractive noncovalent interactions and momentum transmitted collisions due Brownian motion of the solvent molecules. For example a set of long chain molecules firmly attached to one end to a surface will alter their conformation as the space between them is reduced or the environmental conditions are modified (i.e. ionic strength, pH or temperature). For a highly packed condition, this fuzzy surface known as a polyelectrolyte brush will then behave as a responsive material with tunable responsiveness. Thus the objective in the present case was to investigate the change in morphology and the mechanical response of a polyelectrolyte brush to external forces by application of AFM nanoindentations under different ionic strength conditions. The degree of penetration of the AFM tip through the brush will provide insights into the forces exerted by the brush against the tip. Compressions on the brush should aid to characterize its changes in compressibility for different salt concentrations. For the second chosen system, the interaction between two assembled interfaces was investigated at the single molecular level. A multilayered film formed by the consecutive assembly of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes and subsequently coated with a lipid membrane represents a fascinating soft composite material resembling more than a few structural components emerging in living organisms. The fluid bilayer, thus provide a biocompatible interface where additional functionalities can further be integrated (fusion peptides for instance). The smooth polymer cushion confers not only structural flexibility but also adaptability of the chosen substrate properties to be coated. This type of interface could be useful in the development of novel molecular biosensors with single molecule recognition capacities or in the fabrication of assays against pathogenic agents. The aim of this project was to study the molecular binding mechanism between the last polyelectrolyte layer and the lipid head group of the lower lipid leaflet. Understanding this adsorption mechanism between both interfaces, should likewise contribute to improve the fabrication of lipid coated polymeric nano/micro capsules with targeting properties. For example this could be critical in the field of nonviral gene therapy, where the improvement in the design of condensates of nucleic acids and other polymers with lipids (lipoplexes) are of main interest for its posterior use as delivery vectors. Finally, viral capsids were investigated. These naturally occurring assembled nanocontainers within living organisms stand for a remarkable example of nature’s morphological designs. These structures self-assemble from a small number of different proteins occurring in identical copies. The capsid as a self-assembled structure carries multiple functions: compaction of the genome, protection against external chemical threats, target recognition, structural support and finally facilitating the release of the genome into the host cell. It is highly interesting how these different functions are organized within the capsid which consists, for example, in the case of the norovirus of 180 identical copies of one single protein. Therefore, the mechanical stability and elastic properties of virus-like particles of Rubella and Norovirus were investigated by external application of loading forces with an AFM tip. The measurements were performed under conditions relevant for the virus infection mechanism. The applied compressions on these protein shells at pH values mimicking the virus life cycle will aid to learn about possible internal transitions among proteins which may be important for switching between the various functions of the capsid. The choice of two unrelated viral systems with different entry pathways into the cell and with different morphological architectures is expected to reveal crucial information about the stability and mechanical resistance to deformation of these empty membrane-coated and bare viral capsids. This last might provide clues on the stage of particle disassembly and cargo release during the final step of the infection process.

La microscopie à force atomique exploite les interactions entre une sonde et un échantillon. Les nanotubes de carbone représentent la sonde idéale, ils sont: fins, robustes, peu réactifs et ont un haut rapport d'aspect. L'utilisation à grande échelle des sondes à nanotubes de carbone passe par l'étude de leur comportement mécanique en contact avec une surface. Nous étudions deux types de sondes: les sondes avec nanotubes multiparois et les sondes avec nanotubes monoparois. Pour les nanotubes multiparois nous avons utilisé trois mode de fonctionnement AFM différents que sont les modes contact, modulation de fréquence et bruit thermique. Les résultats expérimentaux sont comparés à des modèles mécaniques que nous avons développés. Les études des nanotubes monoparois ont été réalisées à partir d'un AFM interférométrique. Ces mesures nous ont permis de déterminer l'énergie d'adhésion par unité de longueur d'un nanotube monoparoi sur des surfaces de graphite et mica.Enfin nous présentons deux applications des sondes AFM avec nanotube multiparoi. La première est un projet de sondes électrochimiques pour lesquelles un nanotube multiparoi sert de nanolocalisateur. La seconde est une étude par AFM d'une interface air-liquide de fluides complexes. / Atomic force microscopy exploits interactions between a probe and a sample. Carbon nanotubes represent the ideal probe; they are thin with a high aspect ratio, robustes and few reactive. The widespread use of carbon nanotube probes needs the study of their mechanical behavior in contact with a surface. We study two types of probes: probes with multiwalled nanotubes and probes with singlewalled nanotubes. For multiwalled nanotubes, we used three differents AFM modes that are contact, frequency modulation and thermalnoise. The experimental results are compared with mechanical models that we developed. Studies of singlewalled nanotubes have been produced from an interferometric AFM. These measures have enabled us to determine the adhesion energy per unit length of singlewalled nanotubes on graphite and mica surfaces.Finally we present two applications of AFM probes with multiwall nanotubes. The first is a project of electrochemical sensors for which a multiwall nanotube is used as a nanolocalisator. The second is a study by AFM of air-liquid interface of complex fluids.

En raison des enjeux écologiques actuels, l'utilisation de ressources lignocellulosiques dans l'élaboration de matériaux composites suscite actuellement un intérêt grandissant. Au-delà des applications traditionnelles (papier, panneaux composites, textiles…), les ressources lignocellulosiques constituent une alternative durable aux ressources fossiles pour la production de biocarburant ou d'agrocomposites à base de fibres végétales. Ainsi, si l'on souhaite optimiser les performances de ces nouveaux composites, il est nécessaire de mieux connaitre les propriétés de la fibre et par conséquent réaliser une étude multi-échelle des propriétés physicochimiques et mécaniques des fibres, des polymères constitutifs et de leurs interactions. Dans ce cadre, le premier objectif de la thèse a été de mesurer à l'échelle nanométrique le gradient de propriétés mécaniques et physicochimiques de coupes de fibres végétales par l'intermédiaire de deux techniques utilisant le microscope à force atomique (AFM) visant à cartographier les propriétés nanomécaniques et les caractéristiques spectrales en IR. Puis, pour mieux comprendre le rôle des polymères et de leurs interactions sur les propriétés de la fibre, des systèmes bioinspirés, composés des trois principales classes de polymères pariétaux et de complexité croissante ont été élaborés en veillant à introduire des interactions covalentes et non covalentes entre les polymères, et plus particulièrement entre la lignine et les polysaccharides (cellulose, hémicelluloses). / Due to environmental context, the exploitation of lignocellulosic ressources in the elaboration of composite materials has currently a growing interest. Beside traditional uses (paper, textiles…), lignocellulosic ressources constitute a sustainable alternative to fossils ressources for the production of biofuels and fiber-based agrocomposites. However, optimization of the performance of fiber composites requires a multi-scale study of the physicochemical and mechanical properties of the fibers and of their constitutive polymers and their interactions. To this end, the first goal of the thesis is to measure at nanometric scale, the gradient of the mechanical and physicochemical properties of plant fibers using two AFM-based techniques aiming at the mapping of nanomechanical and IR spectral properties. Then, in order to better understand the role of the polymers and of their interactions on the fibers' properties, bioinspired systems have been designed with three main lignocellulosic polymers while achieving in covalent and non-covalent interactions between the polymers (especially between polysaccharides and lignin).

Orientador: Daniel Mario Ugarte / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Física Gleb Wataghin / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T08:26:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 LagosParedes_MaureenJoel_D.pdf: 15612188 bytes, checksum: 76b816022716e5ae1bb5de0ff150c8ca (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: Fios metálicos de tamanho atômico (NF's) apresentam novos efeitos químicos e físicos devido ao seu tamanho reduzido, onde pode-se destacar a condutância quântica. NF's são usualmente gerados através de um procedimento simples: duas superfícies metálicas são colocadas em contato e depois afastadas. Nos últimos estágios do estiramento antes da ruptura, um fio de alguns átomos de diâmetro é gerado enquanto a condutância é medida. Este tipo de abordagem apresenta um cenário que permite o estudo da condutância e do processo de deformação mecânica do NF. O objetivo desta tese consiste no estudo dos efeitos do arranjo atômico na condutância quântica e deformação mecânica de NF's gerados por alongamento. O arranjo atômico dos NF's foi estudado por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão de alta resolução resolvida no tempo. A condutância foi medida utilizando um sistema de quebra controlada de junções operado em ultra alto vácuo. Os experimentos foram realizados a ~ 150 K e 300 K. Neste trabalho de tese NF's de diversos tipos de morfologia, tamanho e composição química foram estudados. O estudo do efeito do arranjo atômico no processo de deformação mecânica foi realizado, principalmente, em nanotarugos (NR's) de ouro de ~ 1 nm de diâmetro. Foi verificado que a temperatura modifica drasticamente o comportamento mecânico dos NR's. Também, foi mostrado que o tamanho e a forma do NR sob deformação têm um papel determinante no processo de deformação mecânica. Além disso, foi realizado o estudo detalhado da formação de uma estrutura anômala que consiste em um nanotubo de seção transversal quadrada. Isto mostra a importância de considerar os efeitos de superfície no arranjo atômico de NF's sob deformação. O estudo da influência do arranjo atômico na deformação mecânica de NF's de ligas de ouro e cobre também foi realizada, onde foram observados eventos de segregação na escala atômica, devido a efeitos de superfície, e variações significativas no comportamento mecânico em relação a NF's puros. A origem na formação de distâncias anômalas em cadeias suspensas de ouro também foi analisada. Os resultados obtidos indicam que o carbono é o agente contaminante que induz a formação de distancias 3.2 Å. Finalmente, estudos dos efeitos do arranjo atômico na condutância de NF's de ouro e prata em função da temperatura foram realizados. Os resultados experimentais mostraram que a temperatura modifica significativamente o comportamento estrutural dos NF's formando defeitos estruturais a baixas temperaturas. As medidas de condutância a ~ 150 K também mostraram variações significativas. A partir da informação estrutural de microscopia, modelos geométricos foram estabelecidos para correlacionar a informação de condutância com o arranjo atômico através de cálculos teóricos de condutância / Abstract: Atomic-size metallic nanowires (NWs) display new physical and chemical effects, for example the quantum conductance. NWs can be usually generated by means of a simple experimental procedure: two metallic surfaces are put into contact and then they are retracted in a controlled way. During the last stages before the rupture, a wire containing a few atoms is created and its conductance can be measured simultaneously during the elongation process. This approach represents a scenario which allows us to study its conductance and mechanical properties. This thesis aims to study the thermal energy effects on NW's atomic arrangement and the corresponding influence on quantum conductance and mechanical deformation. The atomic arrangement was studied using time-resolved high resolution transmission electron microscopy. The conductance was measured using an experimental technique called mechanically controllable break junctions. Experiments were performed at ~ 150 K and 300 K. In this work were studied NW's that exhibit different morphologies, sizes and chemical composition. Firstly, the study of the atomic arrangement influence on the mechanical deformation was developed on one-nm wide gold nanorods (NRs). It was found that temperature induces drastic changes in the NR mechanical behavior. Moreover, it was shown that the NR size and shape play an essential role during the process of mechanical deformation. Second, the detailed study of the formation of anomalous silver square-cross section nanotube was performed. This revealed the strong influence of surface effects on atomic arrangement. Third, the study of atomistic aspects associated with mechanical deformation of gold-copper alloy NWs was also developed. Segregation events at atomic scale, induced by surface effects, and significant variations of the nanoalloy mechanical behavior were observed. Fourth, the analysis of the origin of formation of anomalous interatomic distances in suspended gold atom chains was performed. Our results indicate that carbon represents the most probable contaminant which induces the generation of anomalous distances (3.2 Å). Finally, the study of the atomic arrangement effects on conductance of gold and silver NWs as function of temperature was developed. Our experimental results revealed that thermal energy induces drastic changes of structural behavior, generating planar defects at low temperatures. Conductance measurements obtained at ~150 K also display significant variations. Considering structural information derived from microscopy observations, simple geometric models were defined and the conductance was calculated theoretically in order to correlate the gold and silver NW conductance and structural information / Doutorado / Física da Matéria Condensada / Doutor em Ciências

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Les nanostructures, et en particulier les nanofils semi-conducteurs, ont suscité ces dernières années un très grand intérêt pour de nombreuses applications comme les systèmes de récupération d'énergie ou les capteurs de très haute précision. Dans de telles structures des expérimentations et des calculs théoriques ab-initio ont mis en évidence des effets de taille, pouvant modifier significativement les propriétés électromécaniques pour des diamètres de fils en dessous de 10 nm. L'objectif de ce travail de thèse est de proposer des modélisations multi échelle des nanostructures électromécaniques, telles que les nanofils ioniques et des nanocomposites stratifiés, permettant de reproduire les effets de taille associés à l'échelle nanométrique dans un cadre continu, en se basant sur des calculs ab-initio pour identifier et valider les modèles. Dans une première partie, les effets de surface dans des nanofils piézoélectriques isolés homogènes sont modélisés. Une approche multi échelle est développée, incluant une modélisation continue des nanofils en prenant en compte une énergie de surface supplémentaire dans un cadre piézoélectrique, dont les paramètres associés sont identifiés par calculs ab-initio. Pour cela, une procédure basée sur un modèle de films minces est développée, permettant au travers de calculs ab-initio sur des films d'épaisseurs successives d'isoler l'énergie volumique et de surface, et d'en déduire les coefficients élastiques et piézoélectriques de surface. Les équations du modèle continu sont ensuite résolues par une méthode d'éléments finis incluant des éléments de surface adaptés. Le modèle multi échelle continu est comparé à des calculs ab-initio impliquant des modèles atomistiques complets de nanofils de différents diamètres (de 0,6 à 3,9 nm) pour valider les effets de taille des propriétés électromécaniques. Dans une deuxième partie, des modèles multi échelles sont construits en vue de modéliser les effets de taille pour des nanostructures hétérogènes. Ces structures incluent des nanofils revêtus, ou des nanocomposites stratifiés. Pour les nanofils avec hétérogénéités radiales, l'approche précédemment développée est étendue au cas des surfaces revêtues, et le modèle continu fait intervenir une énergie de surface incluant les effets du revêtement. Pour les nanocomposites stratifiés AlN/GaN, les effets de taille observés par calculs ab-initio sont dus à des effets d'interface et induisent des propriétés élastiques dépendantes des épaisseurs des couches. Un modèle de matériau homogénéisé continu est proposé, incluant un modèle d'interface imparfaite, permettant d'inclure les effets de taille, identifié par calculs ab-initio. Dans une dernière partie, des applications à des systèmes de nanogénérateurs à base de nanofils sont proposées, faisant intervenir des ensembles de nanofils alignés dans une matrice polymère et surmontés par une feuille de graphène. Les approches précédemment développées sont utilisées pour modéliser ces structures par éléments finis / Nanostructures, and more specifically semiconductor nanowires, have drawn special attention in recent years for many applications such as energy harvesting systems or sensors of very high precision. Many recent experiments and theoretical ab-initio calculations have evidenced size effects, which can significantly modify the electromechanical properties of nanowires for diameters below 10 nm. The objective of this thesis is to provide multi-scale modeling of electromechanical properties of nanostructures, such as ionic nanowires and laminated nanocomposites, to reproduce the size effects associated with nanoscale in a continuum model, based on ab-initio calculations to identify and validate the models. In a first part, the surface effects in isolated homogeneous piezoelectric nanowires are modeled. A multi-scale approach is developed, including continuous nanowires modeling taking into account an additional surface energy in the piezoelectric laminates where the associated parameters are identified by ab-initio calculations. For this, a procedure based on slabs is developed, allowing through first-principles calculations on successive slabs thicknesses to isolate the surface energy and to deduce the surface elastic and piezoelectric coefficients. The equations of the continuous model are then solved by a finite element method including appropriate surface elements. The continuous multi-scale model is compared with ab-initio calculations involving full atomistic models of nanowires with different diameters (from 0.6 to 3.9 nm) to validate model regarding size effects of electromechanical properties. In the second part, multi-scale models are constructed to describe the size effects for heterogeneous nanostructures. These structures include coated nanowires or laminated nanocomposites. For nanowires with radial heterogeneity, the previously developed approach is extended to the case of coated surfaces, and involves a continuous surface energy incorporating the effects of the coating. For laminated AlN/GaN nanocomposites, size effects observed by ab-initio calculations are caused by the presence of the interfaces and induce size-dependent elastic properties with respect to the layer thickness. A continuum model based on an imperfect interface is proposed to describe the size dependent effective elastic properties of the overall composite, which are identified by ab-initio calculations. In the last part, nanogenerators system based on nanowires are modeled, involving nanowires arrays aligned in polymer substrates with graphene electrode. The previously developed finite element models are used to simulate the electromechanical properties of such systems

Nanotechnology offers great promise for the development of nanodevices. Hence it becomes important to study the mechanical behavior of nanostructures for their use in such systems. MEMS (Micro ElectroMechanical Systems) provide an effective and precise method for testing nanostructures. Consequently this study focuses on the development of a MEMS thermal nanotensile tester to investigate the mechanical behavior of one-dimensional nanostructures. Extensive characterization of these MEMS devices (structural, electrical and thermal behavior) was performed using experimental as well as finite element methods. Tensile testing of nanostructures requires manipulation of individual nanostructures on the MEMS device. The study involves the development of an efficient methodology for the manipulation of nanowires and nanobeams for nanoscale testing. Furthermore, two different sensing schemes for the developed devices, namely capacitive and resistive, have been extensively investigated and the advantages and various issues related to both have been discussed. Nanocrystalline (nc) Ni nanobeams (typical dimensions of 500 nm x 200 nm x 20 µm) have been tested to failure using the MEMS devices. Improvements in the design for the MEMS nanotensile tester have been suggested to significantly enhance the device performance and to resolve the various issues involved with nano scale tests. Differential capacitive sensing for stress-strain measurements has been suggested to improve the accuracy of strain measurements.

L'exploration du monde quantique au moyen d'objets macroscopiques constitue l'un des défis centraux de ces dernières décennies pour la recherche en physique. Parmi les systèmes proposés pour atteindre cet objectif, les systèmes hybrides, qui couplent un résonateur nanomécanique à un qubit unique, font figure de paradigme.L'excitation cohérente d'un oscillateur mécanique macroscopique par un unique spin électronique ouvrirait en particulier de nouvelles perspectives pour la création d'états quantiques arbitraires du mouvement.Dans ce manuscrit, nous considérons un système hybride constitué d'un oscillateur nanomécanique et du spin électronique d'un unique centre NV, couplés entre eux par une interaction magnétique. Nous nous concentrons sur le cas d'une interaction paramétrique où la vibration mécanique module l'énergie du qubit, et plus précisément sur le cas où le qubit ainsi forcé et l'oscillateur mécanique évoluent sur des échelles de temps comparables.Dans cette situation, nos observations montrent une synchronisation de la dynamique du qubit sur l'oscillation mécanique. Le phénomène est dans un premier temps abordé par une expérience-test qui remplace le mouvement mécanique par un champ radiofréquence en couplage paramétrique avec le spin. Cette première implémentation permet de dégager les propriétés essentielles de l'effet paramétrique, qui est dans un second temps observé sur l'expérience principale.Dans cette seconde expérience, un centre NV est attaché à l'extrémité d'un nanofil de carbure de silicium en vibration placé dans un fort gradient de champ magnétique. Le caractère bidimensionnel des déformations du nanofil octroie alors à la synchronisation des signatures vectorielles encore inédites, qui peuvent aussi être interprétées comme la manifestation d'un triplet de Mollow phononique, ainsi qu'il a été observé dans les premières expériences d'électrodynamique quantique.Finalement, nous explorons la robustesse de la synchronisation vis-à-vis du mouvement Brownien du résonateur, et démontrons la possibilité de protéger le qubit de cette source de décohérence additionnelle grâce à une excitation mécanique de faible amplitude. / Probing the quantum world with macroscopic objects has been a core challenge for research in physics during the past decades. Proposed systems to reach this goal include hybrid devices that couple a nanomechanical resonator to a single spin qubit. In particular, the coherent actuation of a macroscopic mechanical oscillator by a single electronic spin would open perspectives in the creation of arbitrary quantum states of motion.In this manuscript, we investigate a hybrid system coupling a nanomechanical oscillator and a single electronic spin of a NV defect in magnetic interaction. We focus on the parametric interaction case, when the mechanical motion modulates the qubit energy, and in particular when the driven qubit and mechanical oscillators evolves on similar timescales. In that situation a synchronization of the qubit dynamics onto the mechanical motion is observed. The phenomenon is first explored on a test experiment where mechanical motion is replaced by a parametrically coupled RF field. It allows to establish the main properties of the phenomenon, which is subsequently investigated on the core experiment. It consists of a NV defect attached at the vibrating extremity of a silicon carbide nanowire, immersed in a strong magnetic field gradient. The bidimensional character of the nanowire deformations is responsible for novel vectorial signatures in the synchronization, which can also be viewed as a phononic Mollow triplet as observed in early quantum electrodynamics experiments. We finally explore the robustness of the synchronization against the Brownian motion of the resonator and demonstrate the possibility to protect the qubit against this additional decoherence source by applying a small coherent mechanical drive.