This paper surveys U.S. foreign policy in the late 1970s and early 1980s as the American administration reacted to the Soviet Union's interventions in Afghanistan and Poland and to its planned gas pipeline to Western Europe. Chapter I outlines the origins of the pipeline project; Chapters II and III describe U.S. foreign policy toward the Soviets during the Carter and Reagan administrations. Chapter IV focuses on the economic sanctions imposed against the Soviet Union by the United States and their failure to block or delay the pipeline, and Chapter V stresses the inability of economic sanctions-- in this and other instances--to achieve political ends.

O desejo por energia aumenta à medida que o número de pessoas cresce e o aumento de seu padrão de vida conduz a maiores demandas para conforto. Para atender a este desafio, torna-se fundamental trazer novas fontes de suprimento de energia para o mercado. Estas precisam atender a critérios cada vez mais restritos de sustentabilidade. Abundantes recursos de gás natural estão geograficamente distribuídos ao longo da costa do Sudeste do Brasil, na região conhecida como polígono do Pré-Sal. No entanto, avanços crescentes em tecnologia são requeridas para trazer esse gás natural com eficiência às pessoas que precisam dele. A liquefação e transporte em pequena e média escala surge como opção estudada neste trabalho. A partir do ano 2000, o mundo testemunhou um aumento no interesse pela entrega do Gás Natural Liquefeito (GNL) diretamente ao consumidor. O gás natural representa cerca de 1/4 da demanda global de energia, 10% do qual é fornecido na forma de GNL. O GNL assume rapidamente um papel importante nas perspectivas energéticas mundiais uma vez que cresceu mais rápido do que qualquer outra fonte de gás - a uma média de 7% ao ano entre 2000 e 2015. A dissertação apresenta uma visão geral dos números do gás natural no Brasil, e no mundo, assim como uma revisão do mercado mundial de GNL identificando o crescente interesse por soluções de pequena e média escala (Small and Medium Scale Liquefied Natural Gas, SMSLNG). São examinados os detalhes da produção brasileira de GNL, decorrente da implantação, em 2006, do Projeto Gemini, uma planta de liquefação de pequena escala localizada na cidade de Paulínia SP. Em seguida, discute-se sobre a implementação de projetos de importação de GNL no Brasil. A partir dessas experiências passadas analisa-se os fatores facilitadores e as eventuais barreiras para o desenvolvimento do conceito de SMSLNG como solução tecnológica para liquefação de produções de gás natural de pequena e média escala na área do Pré-Sal da região Sudeste do Brasil. O trabalho conclui demonstrando que tecnologias para produção e manuseio do GNL em menores escalas encontram-se disponíveis no plano internacional e podem, efetivamente, colaborar para a monetização de fontes de suprimento de gás natural da área do Pré-Sal, tendo os mercados domésticos como destino. Porém, estratégias propostas para o desenvolvimento do SMSLNG aqui no Brasil dependem da melhoria da infraestrutura de distribuição do gás natural em todo o país e de avanços no quadro normativo e regulatório. Apresenta-se como estudo de caso, uma análise econômica da monetização do gás natural associado de um campo produtor do Pré-Sal. Os resultados comprovam que a solução SMSLNG representa uma oportunidade realista, e que merece pesquisas mais refinadas no futuro, para monetizar o gás natural associado em projetos offshore de pequena e média escala. Conclui-se com propostas de desenvolvimento de soluções de SMSLNG como alternativa de curto prazo para que o país possa superar dilemas impostos pela ausência de robusta infraestrutura dutoviária para escoar o gás natural tanto nas regiões produtivas do Pré-Sal como nos mercados domésticos de destino final do gás. / The desire for energy increases as the number of people grows and the increase in their standard of living leads to greater demands for comfort. To meet this challenge, it is fundamental to bring new sources of energy supply to the market. These need to meet ever more stringent sustainability criteria. Abundant natural gas resources are geographically distributed along the southeastern coast of Brazil, in the region known as the Pre-Salt polygon. However, growing advances in technology are required to bring this natural gas efficiently to the people who need it. The liquefaction and transport in small and medium scale appears as an option studied in this work. Since the year 2000, the world has witnessed an increase in interest in delivering Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) directly to the consumer. Natural gas accounts for about 1/4 of global energy demand, 10% of which is supplied in the form of LNG. LNG quickly assumes an important role in the world\'s energy prospects as it has grown faster than any other source of gas - at an average of 7% a year between 2000 and 2015. The dissertation gives an overview of the numbers of natural gas in the Brazil, and the world, as well as a review of the global LNG market, identifying the growing interest in Small and Medium Scale Liquefied Natural Gas (SMSLNG). The details of the Brazilian LNG production are examined, due to the implementation in 2006 of the Gemini Project, a small scale liquefaction plant located in the city of Paulínia (SP). Next, we discuss the implementation of LNG import projects in Brazil. From these past experiences we analyze the facilitating factors and possible barriers for the development of the SMSLNG concept as a technological solution for the liquefaction of small and medium-scale natural gas productions in the Pre-Salt area of the Southeast region of Brazil. The dissertation concludes by demonstrating that technologies for LNG production and handling at smaller scales are available internationally and can effectively collaborate for the monetization of natural gas supply sources in the Pre-Salt area, with domestic markets as destiny. However, strategies proposed for the development of the SMSLNG here in Brazil depend on the improvement of the natural gas distribution infrastructure throughout the country and on advances in the regulatory framework. An economic analysis of the monetization of the associated natural gas of a field producing the Pre-Salt is presented as case study. The results prove that the SMSLNG solution represents a realistic opportunity, and deserves more refined research in the future, to monetize associated natural gas in small and medium scale offshore projects. It concludes with proposals for the development of SMSLNG solutions as a short-term alternative so that the country can overcome dilemmas imposed by the absence of a robust pipeline infrastructure to leach natural gas both in the productive regions of the Pre-Salt and in the final destination domestic markets of gas

Includes bibliographical references.

No description available.

The way people view development is changing. The world now advocates for a development that also considers future generations. There is a paradigm shift towards sustainable development - a development in today's lifestyle without destroying the resources for tomorrow generations. Sustainable development is a broad concept that addresses how human activities impact on the economic, environmental and social well-being of an ecosystem; however, practical application of the sustainability concept is complex because its objective assessment is elusive. It is often said that the effect of technology on society has never been more profound than today. As mankind develops in science and technology to improve on his well-being, certain impacts are made on the systems that support human existence. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) technology, like gas-to-liquid (GTL) technology, is a latest innovation conceived to 'fight' the problem of gas flaring, and help contribute to the social and economic growth of the people; but it is necessary for man to know if these contemporary technologies are sustainable. This dissertation critically appraises the impact of the LNG project on the community of Bonny Island in Nigeria from a holistic perspective. The approach to the research work is three-fold: an appropriate sustainability framework is selected based on certain criteria; sustainability indicators are developed from the chosen framework; and the sustainability indicators are used to assess the impact of the project on the flora and fauna of the community. To have a clear picture of the impact of Nigeria LNG on its host community, Epe-Waterside is chosen as a control community because of its similar socio-geographical outlook to Bonny Island community. The control community is then subjected to the same set of sustainability indicators for a comparative analysis. The outcome of the research work shows that, though the economic and social conditions of Bonny Island seem much better, its environmental status remains a challenge. In other words, it can be concluded that the present approach to the operation of the LNG technology is not sustainable. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Development and Management))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

The way people view development is changing. The world now advocates for a development that also considers future generations. There is a paradigm shift towards sustainable development - a development in today's lifestyle without destroying the resources for tomorrow generations. Sustainable development is a broad concept that addresses how human activities impact on the economic, environmental and social well-being of an ecosystem; however, practical application of the sustainability concept is complex because its objective assessment is elusive. It is often said that the effect of technology on society has never been more profound than today. As mankind develops in science and technology to improve on his well-being, certain impacts are made on the systems that support human existence. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) technology, like gas-to-liquid (GTL) technology, is a latest innovation conceived to 'fight' the problem of gas flaring, and help contribute to the social and economic growth of the people; but it is necessary for man to know if these contemporary technologies are sustainable. This dissertation critically appraises the impact of the LNG project on the community of Bonny Island in Nigeria from a holistic perspective. The approach to the research work is three-fold: an appropriate sustainability framework is selected based on certain criteria; sustainability indicators are developed from the chosen framework; and the sustainability indicators are used to assess the impact of the project on the flora and fauna of the community. To have a clear picture of the impact of Nigeria LNG on its host community, Epe-Waterside is chosen as a control community because of its similar socio-geographical outlook to Bonny Island community. The control community is then subjected to the same set of sustainability indicators for a comparative analysis. The outcome of the research work shows that, though the economic and social conditions of Bonny Island seem much better, its environmental status remains a challenge. In other words, it can be concluded that the present approach to the operation of the LNG technology is not sustainable. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Development and Management))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

At head of title: "NERDDC/SENRAC Research Project." / Three folded maps in pocket / Two microfiches in pocket / Bibliography: leaves 155-187 / 118, [70] leaves, [23] leaves of plates : ill. (chiefly col.), maps ; 30 cm. + 2 microfiches / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, National Centre for Petroleum Geology & Geophysics (NCPGG) /Dept. of Geology & Geophysics, 1993

In-cylinder fuel-air mixing in a compressed natural gas (CNG)-fuelled, single-cylinder, spark-ignited engine is analysed using a transient three-dimensional computational fluid dynamic model built and run using STAR-CD, a commercial CFD software. This work is motivated by the need for strategies to achieve improved performance in engines utilizing gaseous fuels such as CNG. The transient in-cylinder fuel-air mixing is evaluated for a port gas injection fuelling system and compared with that of conventional gas carburetor system. In this work pure methane is used as gaseous fuel for all the computational studies. It is observed that compared to the premixed gas carburetor system, a substantial level of in-cylinder stratification can be achieved with the port gas injection system. The difference of more than 20% in mass fraction between the rich and lean zones in the combustion chamber is observed for the port gas injection system compared to less than 1% for the conventional premixed system. The phenomenon of stratification observed is very close to the “barrel stratification” mode. A detailed parametric study is undertaken to understand the effect of various injection parameters such as injection location, injection orientation, start of injection, duration of injection and rate of injection. Furthermore, the optimum injection timing is evaluated for various load-speed conditions of the engine. It is also observed that the level of stratification is highest at 50% engine load with a reduced level at 100% load. For low engine loads, the level of stratification is observed to be very low. To analyse the effect of stratification on engine performance, the in-cylinder combustion is modeled using the extended coherent flame model(ECFM). For simulating the ignition process, the arc and kernel tracking ignition model(AKTIM) is used. The combustion model is first validated with measured in-cylinder pressure data and other derived quantities such as heat release rate and mass burn fraction. It is observed that there is a good agreement between measured and simulated values. Subsequently, this model is use to simulate both premixed and stratified cases. It is observed that there is a marginal improvement in terms of overall engine efficiency when the stoichiometric premixed case is compared with the lean stratified condition. However, a major improvement in performance is observed when the lean stratified case is compared with lean premixed condition. The stratified case shows a faster heat release rate which could potentially translate to lower cycle-to-cycle variations in actual engine operation. Also, the stratified cases show as much as 20% lower in-cylinder NOx emissions when compared with the conventional premixed case at the same engine load and speed, underscoring the potential of in-cylinder stratification to achieve improved performance and lower NOx emissions.

[pt] A fim de garantir a segurança das instalações marítimas de produção de óleo e gás natural, parte do gás produzido é continuamente queimada, em função de condições específicas. Tais condições incluem paradas de emergência ou o alívio de inventário de gás devido a flutuações operacionais. A queima nestes ambientes acontece a uma grande faixa de vazões de gás, o que resulta em reduzido número de alternativas tecnológicas para sua medição. A medição de vazão a partir da tecnologia ultrasônica por tempo de trânsito vem sendo largamente utilizada, porém com incertezas relativamente elevadas, dadas as limitações da solução tecnológica. Devido a tais limitações, diversos órgãos reguladores da área de óleo e gás ao redor do mundo admitem diferentes percentuais para estimativa de incerteza da queima. No Brasil, a regulamentação estabelece um percentual máximo de 5 porcento para a queima de gás, não sendo porém específica quanto a que grandeza refere-se (vazão volumétrica ou volume). Esta dissertação traz um estudo sobre a incerteza de volumes horários, diários e mensais de gás produzidos por uma unidade de produção marítima por dezesseis meses, avaliando o impacto da incerteza na medição de vazão de queima sobre a incerteza dos volumes apurados. Foi avaliado o impacto de aspectos da medição ultrasônica de vazão de gás e da computação de volumes de produção a partir desta nos volumes apurados. Conclui-se que a medição de vazão e sua respectiva incerteza afetam de modo pouco significativo a incerteza dos volumes computados de queima. / [en] In order to assure safety at maritime oil & gas production facilities, part of the produced gas is continually burned (flared), depending upon specific operating conditions. These conditions include emergency shutdown and gas inventory relief due to process fluctuations. In such environments, gas flaring occurs at very large flow rate range, reducing the number of available technological choices for flow rate measurement. Transit-time ultrasonic flow measurement has been commonly used for this task, although with relatively high uncertainties due to technology limitations. Because of that, various oil & gas regulator authorities around the world impose different rules for flare measurement uncertainty. In Brazil, the regulation establishes a maximum percentage of 5 percent for flare measurement uncertainty, but it is not specific about the target (flow rate or volume). This dissertation presents a study on the effects of flow rate uncertainty on hourly, daily and monthly produced volume uncertainty in the maritime environment for a 16-month period, evaluating the impact of flare flow rate measurement on volume uncertainty. Aspects of gas transit-time ultrasonic flow rate measurement and volume computation over resulting volumes are evaluated. The conclusion is that flow rate measurement and its associated uncertainty have little effect on computed volume uncertainties.

<p>Highly intelligent and technically savvy people are employed to hack data systems throughout the world for prominence or monetary gain. Organizations must combat these criminals with people of equal or greater ability. There have been reports of heightened threats from cyber criminals focusing upon the energy sector, with recent attacks upon natural gas pipelines and payment centers. The Center for Innovative and Strategic Transformation of Alkane Resources (CISTAR) working collaboratively with the Purdue Process Safety and Assurance Center (P2SAC) reached out to the Computer and Information Technology Department to assist with analysis of the current cybersecurity posture of the companies involved with the CISTAR initiative. This cybersecurity research project identifies the overall defensive cyber posture of CISTAR companies and provides recommendations on how to bolster internal cyberspace defenses through the identification of gaps and shortfalls, which aided the compilation of suggestions for improvement. Key findings include the correlation of reduced cybersecurity readiness to companies founded less than 10 years ago, cybersecurity professionals employed by all CISTAR companies and all CISTAR companies implementing basic NIST cybersecurity procedures.</p>