This thesis investigates the laminar flame speed of C₁-C₃ alkanes and their binary mixtures at conditions of interest in natural gas based gas turbines viz. high temperature, pressure and dilution. Laminar flame speed has been found useful not only for validating chemical kinetics mechanisms but also for developing empirical scaling laws for practical combustion systems. The thesis addresses the lack of laminar flame speed data of C₁-C₃ alkanes at preheat (300-650 K), pressure (1-10 atm) and significant oxidizer dilution (15-21 vol% O₂). Over 400 measurements are reported over a wide range of conditions along with comparison to predictions from leading chemical mechanisms. Unstretched flame speed measurements were performed using a modified Bunsen flame technique based on reaction zone area from chemiluminescence imaging, whereas the strain sensitivity measurements were performed using a bluff-body stabilized stagnation flame with high resolution PIV. These measurements are used to: (i) discern the uncertainties associated with the measurements, (ii) understand the effect of fuel mixture and vitiation on flame speed, and (iii) validate the performance of the leading chemical kinetics mechanisms. Extensive testing shows the unstretched flame speed measurements from the modified Bunsen technique are reasonably accurate. Vitiation studies for methane and propane flames at high preheat show the reduction in flame speed results primarily from the thermal effect of the diluent and that the relative change in flame speed from the undiluted mixture is well correlated to the fractional change in the adiabatic flame temperature over a range of conditions. Significant difference in the measured and predicted flame speeds were observed for rich, atmospheric pressure, propane and lean, high pressure, methane/ethane mixtures with dilution. This highlights possible avenues for improvements in the chemical kinetics mechanisms. Systematic errors were also identified in the Bunsen flame measurements at certain conditions, such as for rich flames with dilution, indicating a need for better understanding of the Bunsen flame technique at these conditions. The difference in the measured and predicted flame speed does not show any clear correlation with the flame height or the strain sensitivity of the mixture. Finally previously proposed mixing rules for estimating flame speed of fuel mixtures from pure fuel components are shown to be reasonably accurate over a range of pressure, reactant temperature and dilution conditions.

Thesis (M.Eng. (Development and Management Engineering)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Thesis (M.Eng. (Development and Management Engineering)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

The growing demand for hydrocarbon fluids, and the future expectation of insufficient onshore reserves, is driving the exploration and development of off-shore oil and gas fields. A significantly increasing number of the new fields are situated in deep water, placing significant constraints on the application of conventional platform (sea surface) systems. This has, by necessity, generated the rapid growth of sub-sea processing technology. / An integral part of a novel sub-sea natural gas dehydration project is the need to design and develop a communications, monitor and control system that is extremely reliable within a harsh marine environment. The off shore gas gathering and processing facility will be unmanned, therefore the entire ongoing operation of the sub-sea facility, and any sea surface equipment, will be dependent on the proper functioning of the communication system. System redundancy and low power consumption are also important issues. / The continuous bi-directional transmission of information between the field and shore-based control centres, together with the complexity of any maintenance / repair missions requires an extremely highly reliable system. The prospect of false alarms must be maintained at an absolute minimum. / Within this thesis the history and development of ocean based communications up to current state-of-the art technology is reviewed. Based on the unique and demanding requirements of the sub-sea gas processing facility, detailed recommendations are made for both a primary and back-up communication systems that meet the given criteria of being robust and having very low power requirements.

Thesis (M.M.A.S.)--U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 2007. / Cover title. AD-A475 516. Includes bibliographical references. Electronic version available on the Public STINET.

La dégradation de l’environnement ainsi que l’épuisement progressif des énergies fossiles devient très inquiétant et incite les états à définir des limites d’émission polluantes plus strictes. Ceci a conduit les constructeurs automobiles à poursuivre leurs recherches dans le développement de conception propre et efficace des moteurs en utilisant des combustibles alternatifs dans les moteurs à combustion interne.Dans le présent travail, on s’intéresse à l’étude des moteurs fonctionnant en mode DF afin d’améliorer ses performances tout en minimisant les émissions polluantes, en particulier les HC et les CO. Pour ce faire des études expérimentales ont été menées. Une réduction de 77% des émissions de HC a été observée en passant d’une richesse de 0,35 à 0,7. Par ailleurs, Il a été noté aussi qu’une diminution de 20% à 50% des émissions de CO avec une amélioration de 30% du rendement peut être visualisée en variant l’avance à l’injection de 4,5 °V à 6 °V. Concernant la mise en place de la pré-injection, une baisse de 30% des émissions de NOx a été observée avec un gain de 12% à 30% de rendement par rapport à une seule injection. En dernier terme, un modèle thermodynamique à une zone a été développé afin de prédire la température et la pression dans le cylindre. Une bonne concordance a été notée entre les deux résultats avec une erreur moyenne relative inférieure à 5%. / Currently, the environmental degradation due to pollutant emissions and the gradual depletion of fossil fuels, becoming very worrying, are prompting European directives to set pollutant emission limits. These have led manufacturers to continue research in the development of clean and efficient engine designs using alternative fuels in internal combustion engines.In this work, we focus on the study of engines operating in dual-fuel mode to improve its performance while minimizing pollutant emissions, particularly HC and CO. For this, experimental studies were conducted. A reduction of about 77% in the HC emissions was observed as the equivalence ratio was varied from 0.35 to 0.7. Regarding the effect of injection timing, it was noted that the CO emissions decreased about 20% to 50% with an improvement in the brake thermal efficiency by 30% upon varying the injection advance from 4,5 °CA to 6 °CA. On the other hand, the introduction of pre-injection strategy led to a decrease by 30% in NOx emissions with an amelioration of brake thermal efficiency of 12% to 30% compared to a single injection. Lastly, a single zone thermodynamic model was developed to predict the in-cylinder temperature and pressure. A good agreement was noted between the predicted and experimental results. The average relative error was less than 5%.

[pt] Medidas do desempenho de quatro diferentes motores, todos operando no modo bicombustível Diesel / gás natural, foram realizadas em dinamômetro de bancada. Selecionaram-se os motores a ensaiar por suas características construtivas e operacionais, representativas das distintas aplicações dos motores Diesel (cilindrada, faixa de rotação, uso ou não da turbo- alimentação e arrefecimento do ar de combustão). Variou-se a razão de substituição de Diesel por gás natural de modo a levantar as regiões por onde a operação bicombustível é possível. Embora o foco do trabalho esteja sobre o desempenho também se tomaram dados relativos às emissões (fumaça / opacidade), tanto durante a operação original Diesel, quanto na bicombustível. Foram propostas correlações empíricas para o rendimento térmico indicado, eficiência volumétrica e atrito em motores Diesel. Podem-se usar, na falta de dados experimentais prévios, tais correlações na estimativa do desempenho de motores diferentes dos testados. Os resultados indicam que, por grande parte dos campos de funcionamento, apenas parte do gás natural efetivamente queima. Em motores operando a baixa carga cerca de 20 - 30 % do gás fornecido passa ao coletor de escape sem reagir. Desenvolveu-se um modelo simples para a queima Diesel / gás. Parâmetros empíricos exigidos por tal modelo foram levantados com base dos pontos experimentais obtidos. Sugere-se usar tal modelo na previsão do desempenho Diesel / gás de motores ainda não testados no modo bicombustível. Os resultados sugerem que, em motores operando com razão ar / gás natural superior a, aproximadamente, 30, a queima do gás ocorre apenas no entorno do Diesel. Em misturas de razão ar / gás inferior a 30 a queima em frentes de chama parece ocorrer. Em tais casos fica-se, também, sujeito ao funcionamento com detonação. As correlações empíricas levantadas foram utilizadas na conversão Diesel / gás natural de três diferentes grupos geradores de eletricidade (motores de 212, 535 e 1.570 hp). De forma distinta das medidas tomadas em laboratório as conversões destes geradores foram feitas em campo, sem oportunidade para a medida cuidadosa e metódica de todos os parâmetros de interesse. Os dados verificados nas conversões de tais grupos geradores, quando considerados adequados, foram incorporados ao presente trabalho. / [en] Four Diesel engines, all running on the Diesel / natural gas dual fuel mode, were dynamometer tested. Engines were selected based on their distinct construction, operating parameters and engine field use. The Diesel / natural gas substitution was varied in order to determine the dual fuel operation limits. Measurements related to particulate emissions (smoke and opacity) were also made. Correlations for indicated thermal efficiency, volumetric efficiency and engine friction were proposed. It`s suggested that those can be used on the performance estimate of engines when little or no previous test data is available. The dual fuel test results indicate that, according to engine load, part of the gas does not burn. In engines running on low load as much as 20 - 30 % of the gas supplied simply reaches exhaust manifold unreacted. A simple model for the dual fuel combustion was proposed. An empirical correlation for a combustion parameter, that arouse in the modeling was, base on test results, proposed. It`s suggested that the semi-empirical dual fuel model can be used for the performance estimate of Diesel engines, when burning natural gas, not previously tested on the dual fuel mode. Results indicate that, for engines running on air / gas ratios above 30, combustion appear to remain limited to Diesel droplets neighborhood. For richer mixtures gas combustion appear to occur on flame fronts. Audible knock was noticed on engines running on air / gas ratios below, approximately, 30. The empirical correlations proposed were used for the dual fuel conversion of three different genset engines (212, 535 and 1.570 bhp). Gensets data, when appropriate, is also reported in the present work.

[pt] A Indústria de Gás Natural apresenta as características de uma indústria de rede. Assim, no caso de ocorrer uma falha em qualquer dos seus agentes ou modais logísticos, há impacto sobre toda a cadeia, com a possibilidade de torná-la inoperante. Esta indústria nasceu e cresceu de forma localizada, gerando mercados consumidores regionais. As regiões consumidoras de gás natural apresentam peculiaridades marcantes e diferentes em vários fatores, como: infraestruturas, volumes consumidos, produções, reservas provadas, formulações do preço e modais utilizados na exportação e importação. Com base nestas características pode-se inferir sobre a maturidade da Indústria de gás natural de cada região, bem como identificar desafios e oportunidade no atendimento do mercado consumidor. Esta dissertação analisa os fatores que determinam a regionalização do gás natural, as características regionais, os principais mercados mundiais e a estrutura da indústria no mercado brasileiro. Descreve as principais tecnologias atuais utilizadas no crescimento neste mercado gasífero, focando a revolução do Shale Gas no mercado norte-americano e a técnica do gasoduto virtual. Para esse fim, utilizou-se revisão narrativa da literatura internacional e nacional sobre a indústria e o mercado do gás natural, com ênfase em logística. / [en] The Natural Gas Industry has the characteristics of a network industry characteristic. Therefore, in the event of failure in any of the logistics agents or modals, there is impact over the entire chain, with the possibility of making it inoperative. This industry was born and raised in a localized way, generating regional consumers markets. Natural gas consuming regions have significant and different peculiarities in many factors, such as: infrastructures, consumed volumes, production, proven reserves, price formulations and modals used in exportation and importation. Based on these features, the maturity of Natural Gas Industry of each region can be inferred, as well as identifying challenges and opportunities in the consumer market service. This paper analyzes the factors which define the natural gas regionalization, regional characteristics, key global markets and industry structure in the Brazilian market. It outlines the main current technologies used in the growth of the gas Market, focused on the Shale Gas revolution in the North American market and in the virtual gas pipeline techniques. To this purpose, we used a narrative review of national and international literature on the natural gas industry and market with emphasis on logistics.

Last August marked 10 years since the start of the Camisea project, and it is undeniable the influence that it has had in Peru. However, it is also unquestionable that during the last decade, the country has suffered from critic mismanagement, called «centralism». In this context, the author gives an overview of the state of the natural gas industry in Peru. Finally, he makes reference to researches aimed at gaining access to natural gas outside the capital. / El pasado mes de agosto se cumplieron 10 años desde el inicio de operación del proyecto Camisea, y es innegable la influencia que ha tenido este proyecto en el Perú. Sin embargo, también resulta incuestionable que en esta última década el país ha padecido de una crítica mala gestión, llamada «centralismo». En este contexto, el autor hace un repaso de la situación de la industria del gas natural en el Perú. Finalmente, hace referencia a investigaciones destinadas a lograr el acceso al gas natural fuera de la capital.

Les clathrates organiques, particulièrement ceux formés entre l’hydroquinone (HQ) et les gaz, sont des entités supramoléculaires montrant un potentiel intéressant comme matériau alternatif pour les applications de stockage et de séparation de gaz. Cette étude traite de l’évaluation du clathrate d’HQ pour la séparation du CO2 contenu dans les mélanges CO2/CH4 par réaction gaz-solide. D’un point de vue fondamental, différentes propriétés des clathrates d’HQ-CO2, -CO2/CH4 et -CH4 ont été analysées: signatures spectroscopiques, structures cristallines, morphologies, capacités de stockage de gaz, températures de relargage de gaz et températures de transition structurales. Ce travail offre aussi de nouveaux éléments de compréhension des mécanismes de formation et de dissociation des clathrates d’HQ. Il est montré que, pour capturer efficacement et sélectivement le CO2, la réaction d’enclathration doit être faite en utilisant l’intermédiaire « clathrate vide » formé à partir du clathrate d’HQ-CO2. D’un point de vue pratique, les courbes d’équilibre, les enthalpies de dissociation, et les occupations dans les conditions d’équilibre ont été déterminées pour les clathrates d’HQ-CO2 et -CH4 dans une gamme étendue de température allant de 288 à 354 K. De plus, la cinétique de la réaction d’enclathration a été étudiée expérimentalement et modélisée. Dans cette optique, un matériau composite à base d’hydroquinone a été développé, et permet de capter et stocker le gaz de manière réversible, et d’améliorer significativement la cinétique d’enclathration. Le procédé de séparation de gaz basé sur la formation du clathrate d’hydroquinone a aussi été étudié. L’influence des paramètres opératoires (i.e. temps de réaction, pression, température et composition du gaz d’alimentation) sur la cinétique de capture, la sélectivité et la capacité de stockage de gaz ont été évaluées à travers des expériences menées à l’échelle pilote. / Organic clathrate compounds, particularly those formed between hydroquinone (HQ) and gases, are supramolecular entities recently highlighted as promising alternatives for applications such as gas storage and separation processes. This study deals with an evaluation of the HQ clathrates to separate CO2 from CO2/CH4 gas mixtures through direct gas-solid reaction. On the fundamental point of view, new insights into several properties of the CO2-, CO2/CH4-, and CH4-HQ clathrates were studied: spectroscopic signatures, crystal structures, morphologies, gas storage capacities, guest release temperatures and structural transition temperatures. This work also offers new elements of understanding HQ clathrate formation and dissociation mechanisms. It is shown that, for capturing CO2 the most selectively and efficiently, the enclathration reaction has to be done with the “guest-free intermediate” derived from the CO2−HQ clathrates. On a practical point of view, the equilibrium curves, the dissociation enthalpies, and the occupancies at the equilibrium clathrate forming conditions, were determined for the CO2- and CH4-HQ clathrates in an extended range of temperature from about 288 to 354 K. Moreover, the kinetics of the gas-solid enclathration reaction were studied experimentally and modelled. In this way, HQ-based composite materials were developed and allows to reversibly capture and store gases, and to significantly improve the enclathration kinetics. The hydroquinone clathrate based gas separation (HCBGS) process was also investigated. The influence of the process operating parameters (i.e. reaction time, pressure, temperature and feed gas composition) on the CO2 capture kinetics, the selectivity toward CO2, and the storage capacity were assessed through experiments performed at pilot scale.