O tema referente ao aumento das exportações vem ganhando importância para o comércio exterior brasileiro. Desde 2003 as exportações brasileiras têm apresentado resultados recordes e o saldo da balança comercial acompanha este resultado. Entretanto, as exportações brasileiras tornam-se inexpressivas se comparadas às exportações que ocorrem no mundo, pois elas representam somente pouco mais de 1% das exportações mundiais. Um dos fatores responsáveis por este resultado seria a incidência de barreiras comerciais aos produtos brasileiros exportados, uma vez que estas barreiras aumentam os custos das transações envolvidos nos processos de exportações e são capazes de torná-los inviáveis. Assim, este trabalho possui como objetivo principal utilizar a abordagem da nova economia institucional (NEI) para analisar o desempenho de alguns dos principais produtos da pauta exportadora brasileira considerando a incidência de barreiras comerciais européias sobre eles. Para atingir este objetivo, faz-se necessário levantar as barreiras comerciais impostas pela União Européia, principal parceiro comercial do Brasil, aos produtos brasileiros e mostrar quais os possíveis reflexos que estas barreiras representam ao comportamento do comércio exterior brasileiro. / The subject that refers to the increase of the exports has been becoming an important issue to the brazilian international business. The brazilian exports have been showing an excellent performance since 2003 and the balance of trade imitates this result. However, the brazilian exports become insignificant when are compared to all exports that occur in the world, because they represent only around 1% of the global exports. One of the factors responsible for this result is the incidence of international trade barriers on brazilian exports, because these barriers increase the transaction costs involved in the export process and can discourage business. Therefore, the main objective of this research is to use the new institutional economics approach to analyze the performance of some of the most important products exported by Brazil considering the incidence of european trade barriers on them. To reach this aim, it is needed to show the trade barriers imposed by the European Union on brazilian exports and point the possible reflexes that these barriers represent to the brazilian international business. European Union represents the most important business partner of Brazil.

No atual contexto mundial de incessante busca por fontes renováveis de energia, o desenvolvimento do mercado de etanol tem sido recorrentemente discutido na academia, assim como na sociedade como um todo. Nesse sentido, abre-se espaço para estudos que visam o aperfeiçoamento desta cadeia agroindustrial, bem como o aprimoramento dos programas destinados à promoção deste biocombustível. Frente a esta demanda, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo realizar uma análise comparativa entre os mercados brasileiro e canadense de etanol, tendo na Nova Economia Institucional o aporte teórico para efetuar esta avaliação, a qual permite identificar algumas semelhanças e divergências. Para tanto, são abordados os seguintes aspectos pertinentes a cada país: informações primárias dos mercados (complexo industrial, produção, consumo, matéria-prima, processo produtivo, frota automotiva, dentre outros aspectos), estrutura de governança (hierárquica, híbrida ou mercado) adotada pelas usinas na regência do elo de suprimento agrícola, e ambiente institucional em que as indústrias, brasileira e canadense, de etanol estão inseridas (políticas de promoção, proteção e regulação do mercado de etanol). Com relação à primeira vertente observada, nota-se que o Brasil possui um mercado de etanol muito mais consolidado em relação ao canadense, ainda que este último demonstre potencial de crescimento. Além disso, o etanol produzido pela indústria nacional apresenta expressiva vantagem competitiva em termos de rendimento agrícola/industrial e ambiental. No que diz respeito ao ambiente institucional, destaca-se a forte intervenção do governo canadense na conduta da indústria doméstica de etanol, de forma a contrastar com a atual posição do Estado nacional, já que este pouco tem atuado na arena decisória do setor sucroenergético brasileiro. Quanto à última questão avaliada, a estrutura de governança, para o mercado brasileiro foi identificado o regime hierárquico (integração vertical cana própria) como predominante, enquanto no Canadá a estrutura mais frequente é a híbrida (estabelecimentos de contratos de compra e venda junto aos fornecedores de matéria-prima agrícola). Divergência explicada, em grande parte, pela elevada especificidade da cana-de-açúcar frente ao milho e trigo. / In the current context of incessant search for renewable energies, the development of ethanol market has been often discussed at academic scenery, as well as the whole society. Thus, this situation creates room for studies aimed at improve the ethanol agro-industrial chain, even as the upgrading of programs linked with ethanol promotion. Facing it, this thesis makes a comparative analysis between Brazilian and Canadian ethanol markets, using the New Institutional Economics to identify some similarities and differences. In order to reach this goal, three aspects regarding each country are observed: primary information of markets (industrial complex, production, consumption, raw material, production process, automotive fleet and so on), governance structure (hierarchical, hybrid and market) adopted by ethanol plants to manage their agricultural raw material supply chain, and institutional environment where Brazilian and Canadian mills are involved (policies for promotion, protection and regulation of the ethanol market). Regarding the first analyzed item, it is possible to see that Brazil has an ethanol market much more consolidated than Canadian market, although the last one demonstrates potential for growth. Moreover, the ethanol produced by the domestic industry has significant competitive advantage in terms of agricultural/industrial and environmental yield. About the institutional environment, the results show strong intervention of Canadian government in the conducted of domestic ethanol industry, differently what happens in Brazil, where national state has currently made just few interventions on Brazilian ethanol sector. Regarding the third studied element, the governance structure, for Brazil hierarchical structure was identified as predominant, on the other hand hybrid (establishments of purchase and sale contracts with suppliers of agricultural raw material) structure was considered the most common in Canada. Divergence largely explained by the high specificity of sugarcane compared to corn and wheat.

Cosméticos verdes são aqueles que alegam ser desenvolvidos de acordo com princípios ecológicos, sendo geralmente associados às características natural, orgânica e/ou vegana. Os sistemas de certificação desses produtos visam assegurar o cumprimento de diretrizes préestabelecidas e comunicar o consumidor sobre os atributos dos produtos. Considerando a importância da certificação para a consolidação e o fortalecimento desse mercado, o objetivo do presente trabalho foi analisar a percepção de empresas produtoras de cosméticos verdes e consumidores a respeito da certificação natural, orgânica e vegana sob a perspectiva da Nova Economia Institucional. Para isso, foi empregada a triangulação metodológica, baseada em diversas abordagens de pesquisa, incluindo a realização de entrevistas semiestruturadas com representantes de empresas produtoras de cosméticos verdes certificadas e a aplicação de questionários de elaboração própria em amostra não-probabilística de 416 consumidores de cosméticos via Facebook. Os dados das entrevistas foram submetidos à análise de conteúdo e os questionários foram analisados por meio de estatística descritiva, ambos interpretados à luz da Nova Economia Institucional. Verificou-se que as empresas produtoras de cosméticos verdes atribuem à certificação um importante papel na comunicação sobre apelos ecológicos aos consumidores, no alinhamento de princípios com fornecedores, atuando como mecanismos de execução contratual e na obtenção de vantagens de mercado. As principais desvantagens relatadas pelas empresas produtoras foram os custos de transação decorrentes da obtenção e manutenção da certificação e possíveis dificuldades de comunicação com os consumidores. Em relação aos consumidores, predominaram na amostra usuários de cosméticos verdes. Porém, de modo geral, os consumidores possuem baixo nível de conhecimento e baixo grau de confiança nas principais certificações de cosméticos naturais, orgânicos e veganos atuantes no Brasil, além de perceberem tais certificações como pouco rigorosas. A disposição dos consumidores para pagar por cosméticos certificados foi estimada em 10 a 50% do preço dos produtos não certificados. A disposição para pagar está correlacionada com o nível de conhecimento e o grau de confiança dos consumidores nas certificações. Considerando os resultados do estudo, foram sugeridas estratégias para minimizar as desvantagens relacionadas aos custos de transação e às dificuldades de comunicação das certificações com os consumidores e ampliar suas vantagens, principalmente no que se refere à redução de assimetrias de informação e à obtenção de vantagens de mercado, de modo a contribuir para a consolidação e expansão do crescente mercado desses produtos / Green cosmetics are those that claim to be developed according to ecological principles, and are generally associated with natural, organic and/or vegan characteristics. Certification systems for these products aim to ensure compliance with pre-established guidelines and communicate the consumer about the attributes of the products. Considering the importance of certification for the consolidation and strengthening of this market, it is necessary to analyze the role of certification systems, both for producers and consumers. Thus, this work aims at analyzing the perception of producers of green cosmetics and consumers regarding natural, organic and vegan certification from the perspective of the New Institutional Economy. In order to do that, we used methodological triangulation, based on multiple research approaches, including the collection of primary data through semi-structured interviews with representatives of certified producers of green cosmetics and the application of closed questionnaires in nonprobabilistic sample of cosmetic consumers via Facebook. The information obtained from the interviews were submitted to content analysis, while the results of the questionnaires were analyzed by means of descriptive statistics. Both results were interpreted in the context of the New Institutional Economics. It was found that green cosmetic companies attribute to certification an important role in communicating ecological appeals to consumers, in aligning principles with suppliers, acting as contractual enforcement mechanisms and in obtaining market advantages. The main disadvantages reported by the companies were the transaction costs from obtaining and maintaining certification and possible communication difficulties with consumers. Regarding the questionnaires applied to consumers, the sample was predominantly composed of users of green cosmetics. However, it was found that consumers, in general, have a low level of knowledge and a low degree of confidence in the main certifications of natural, organic and vegan cosmetics in Brazil. Consumers also perceive such certifications as not very strict. The willingness of consumers to pay for certified cosmetics has been estimated at 10 to 50% of the price of non-certified products. The willingness to pay is correlated with the level of knowledge and the degree of consumer confidence in the certifications. Based on the results of the study, we suggested strategies to minimize the disadvantages of certification systems related to transaction costs and the difficulties of communication and to extend their advantages, especially regarding the reduction of information asymmetries and the market advantages, aiming at contributing to the consolidation and expansion of the growing market of these products

In many areas of India and Australia, groundwater has been and is being withdrawn at rates far beyond the recharge capacity of the aquifer. The resulting depletion of groundwater supplies has a number of adverse social, economic and environmental consequences. These consequences and conflicts have led to a debate over the suitable institutional arrangements to manage common pool groundwater resources in a sustainable manner.

The constraints experienced by water utilities in developing countries, with regard to the universal provision of access to water and improved water services, have been defined by international policymakers as "a crisis of governance". This study departs from the theoretical perspectives on governance and aspires to accumulate knowledge and advance understanding on how the performance of water utilities can be enhanced. The thesis comprises five papers and the cover essay. Four of the papers address case studies and one is a theoretically based paper, while all five papers are supported by reviews from the literature relevant to the topic of each paper. The thesis uses insights from literature reviews mapping relevant scientific theories and concepts in the areas of mainly governance, deliberative policymaking and communicative planning, social capital, civil society and institutional theoretical perspectives. The study integrates different research methods and explores theoretical perspectives on governance to examine the governance aspects of water utilities in the transition phase from public to private management and operation. The study investigates whether the  governance structure that involves the private sector in the form of Public Private Partnership (PPP) of water utility has produced "good governance" and enhanced water governance in two cases, the Lema Water Company in Amman, Jordan and the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) in Accra, Ghana. The analysis highlights evidence of governance deficiency. Accordingly, the thesis argues against the policy design that assumes that simply transferring the management and operation of water utility to private operators would resolve the problems of water utilities and enhance water governance. The analyses and the conclusions reached in the papers, together with a review of the literature on New Institutional Economics theory that knits together all the theories that are utilised in the papers, offer insights in the understanding of aspects of water governance. The insights suggest that policymakers need to better understand how institutions at different levels impact the overall performance of a water utility. The performance of the water utility cannot be detached from the wider institutional setting or reduced to simply changing the operator.  What has been disregarded from the calculus of international policymakers, the thesis mainly argues, is the institutional perspective. The study concludes that actors’ performances are affected primarily by their institutional settings. The constraints of water utilities to provide a better performance and good governance processes reside in different kinds of institutional settings To address this, the thesis develops a generic institutional framework within which water governance aspects can be assessed at different institutional levels, from the higher level of politics to that of the individual level. According to this perspective, the study views governance process as "the interaction between actors from the spheres of a society within specific sets of formal and informal institutions in a social setting that produces certain political, economic and social outcomes".  It defines good governance as "the legitimacy given by the wider public to institutions in a social setting and the coherency of formal and informal institutions to produce socially effective outcomes for the collective public". The developed generic institutional framework is used to more thoroughly analyse the two cases integrated in the study. This approach to assessment of water governance provides an explanation for why the water utilities were not able to meet their performance goals and enriches our understanding of water governance processes. It also modestly maps the main problematic institutional areas that in each case constrained aspects of good water governance. In practical terms, this thesis emphasises that policymakers have to map and identify the institutional factors constraining the overall performance of a water utility, at all levels. The thesis also urges policymakers to be cautious regarding which formulated policies are seen as solutions. Policymakers should restrain themselves from experimenting with policy when they are not sure that certain outcomes are likely to be produced by adopting a particular policy. In the long run, inappropriate policies may negatively affect local institutional settings and are likely to undermine the capacity of local governance. / QC20100628

From the implementation of National Health Insurance on March 1, 1995 in Taiwan, the public has obtained it¡¦s benefit, and it¡¦s really a blessing for Taiwanese. Following the implementation of National Health Insurance Policy, the public began having demands for National Pension due to the aging of society from 1993. As a result the authorities including the Ministry of the Interior which is in charge of National Pension, the Council of Agriculture which plans Farmer Pension, and the Council of Labor Affairs which proposes reforming Labor Pension Payment all show their attitude to take charge then positively frame each kind of pension systems. In fact, the coming of National Pension which is a blessing for the public could be the shackles to future generations. Blessing or shackles, it all depends on whether the formation of National Pension is for the public¡¦s benefit or only for the political intention. Is it for the people¡¦s lifetime protection and peaceful old age or only to make good the commitment made during the campaign? Is it a long-term, integral and foresighted consideration about people¡¦s demand or merely a short-term, sectional and realistic payback? With the basis of economic development to measure the long-term burdens and take improving financial affairs as an important condition, or, there is only one-year budget thus the local government have to raise funds and rely on central government subsidies? National Pension and National Health Insurance are both the nation¡¦s social security business, in order to benefit the public and not to recommit the same error of the current insurance systems, the authorities and other related groups should find out people¡¦s true demands and consider whether the people could afford the insurance premium but also take advantage of other countries¡¦ experience as consultation. This article is to probe into the achievement of National Pension implementation in Japan¡Xan orient country which has similar cultural background and family social formations with Taiwan.¡Xand to understand the background, current status, and the achievement of the implementation then take their strong points as an example to us. The Taiwan government planned to carry out National Pension in 2000, which is a significant social welfare policy after the implementation of National Health Insurance; unfortunately it doesn¡¦t come into effect even to this day due to the political rivalries and the substitution of political party. National Pension is a kind of compulsory savings scheme; it¡¦s a kind of insurance program and also a project of wealth redistribution. Furthermore, National Pension can be taken as the rearrangement of economic resources to regulate individual¡¦s wealth and income in the society, the arrangement of pension system would influence the management of whole economic system. The performance of pension has its dual purpose, the positive is to undertake the horizontal integration to have a healthy aged pension system; the passive is to grasp the opportunity to keep political power and electoral factors from causing the allowance or welfare systems become disordered. Lastly, to compare the main difference of pension implementation and the feasibility analysis after performance between Taiwan and Japan. Whether the pension can be put into practice or not depends on if we can achieve the most effective resources allocation of social resources, then we can see the economic benefits of pension system.

This study is intended to analyze Taiwan economic development from the perspectives of the New Institutional Economics, to introduce institution and institutional transfer into the historical analysis of Taiwan economic development, and to obtain the empirical significance of institution on economic development. Due to the Japanese colonized policy in Taiwan, and the economic theory of principle for the people by Dr. Sun, Yet-Sen after Taiwan Restoration, the analysis of this study in Taiwan economic development will be conducted before and after Taiwan Restoration. This study will focus on the history of economic development before and after Restoration, and the institutional establishment and its change, and will collect relevant data to analyze and evaluate the interrelation between economic development and institution, and comment the effect of institution and its performance. The findings of this study are: 1¡Bthe national theoretical analysis of The New Institutionalism: Before Restoration, the political aspect of institution was more violent than contractual; rather, after restoration, the political and economic aspects of institution has been transferred from violent to contractual . 2¡Bthe theoretical analysis of Property Rights of The New Institutionalism: Before Restoration, the main purpose of defining property rights was to predate land; after Restoration, the main purpose of establishing property rights system was to assure the security of private property rights to facilitate the development of productive activity. 3¡Bthe theoretical analysis of transactional costs of New Instutionalism: Before Restoration, the establishment of modernized institution was aimed at reducing the transactional costs of investing in the colony by Japanese capitalists, and predating more economic achievement from the colony. After Restoration, the establishment of economic institution was aimed at reducing the transactional costs generated by both transactional factors and human factors, and stabilizing the economic development. 4¡Bthe analysis from the perspective of practical aspects of New Institutionalism: Before Restoration a variety of political measures bas been done to assist Japanese capitalists; after Restoration, the endeavor of sustaining the neutrality of agents and promoting effectiveness of enforcement produced the cooperative behavior, subject to contract. 5¡Bthe theoretical analysis of institutional transfer: Before Restoration, the economic institutional change was imposed, while after Restoration it is also imposed initially, but lately 30 years, inductive.

A reutilização de resíduos orgânicos para alimentação animal é uma prática comum desde os tempos mais longínquos. Com a identificação das perdas e desperdícios de alimento como uma estratégia chave diante da crescente preocupação em relação à Segurança Alimentar Global, este mecanismo de reaproveitamento do resíduo gerado é posto como uma importante alternativa. No município de Porto Alegre (RS/ Brasil) é conduzido o Projeto de Reaproveitamento de Resíduos Orgânicos de Restaurante via Suinocultura, no qual o departamento de limpeza municipal intermedeia a transferência de resíduos alimentares para suinocultores da região (vinculados ao grupo Associação de Suinocultores da Zona Sul de Porto Alegre), produzindo produtos cárneos de origem e qualidade controladas. Para avaliar como está disposta a estrutura de governança desta cadeia produtiva, como ela se relaciona com o ambiente institucional que a delimita e se esta estrutura afeta a forma como o projeto é conduzido, foram utilizados conceitos da Nova Economia Institucional e da Economia de Custos de Transação. Foi possível identificar que o alto nível de especificidade de ativos e de incertezas nas transações são fontes significantes de custos de transações. Além disso, os estabelecimentos geradores de resíduo e os produtores agem de forma oportunista ao participar do Projeto e investimentos específicos demandados não são realizados devido à incerteza do ambiente. Em decorrência destes aspectos, emergem falhas organizacionais, identificadas nesta pesquisa como entraves na condução do projeto. Os principais entraves identificados para a condução do Projeto foram "alta de Licenciamento Ambiental", "Tratamento do Resíduo" e "Características da Associação", estando estes diretamente vinculados ao ambiente institucional. / The reuse of organic waste as animal diet is a common practice since the most ancient times. The identification of losses and food waste became a key strategy in the face of growing concern about the Global Food Security, and this mechanism that recycle of the waste generated is na important alternative. In Porto Alegre (RS State / Brazil) is leading the “Projeto de Reutilização de Resíduos Orgânicos de Restaurante via Suinocultura”, in which the municipal cleaning department mediates the transfer of food waste to pig farmers in the region (all of them linked to a Producers Association) to produce meat products with origin and quality controlled. To evaluate how is addressed the governance structure of this production chain, how is its relationship with the Institutional Environment and is this structure affects how the project is lead, were used concepts of the New Institutional Economics and the Economics of Transaction Costs. We observed that the high level of asset specificity and uncertainty in the transactions are significant sources of transaction costs. In addition, the waste generators establishments and producers act opportunistically to participate in the project and some demanded specific investments are not made due to environmental uncertainty. The main barriers identified (called in this study as organizational failures) for the well maintenance of the Project were ―Lack of Environmental Licensing‖, ―Treatment of Waste‖ and ―the Association Features‖, and these are directly linked to the institutional environment.

A reutilização de resíduos orgânicos para alimentação animal é uma prática comum desde os tempos mais longínquos. Com a identificação das perdas e desperdícios de alimento como uma estratégia chave diante da crescente preocupação em relação à Segurança Alimentar Global, este mecanismo de reaproveitamento do resíduo gerado é posto como uma importante alternativa. No município de Porto Alegre (RS/ Brasil) é conduzido o Projeto de Reaproveitamento de Resíduos Orgânicos de Restaurante via Suinocultura, no qual o departamento de limpeza municipal intermedeia a transferência de resíduos alimentares para suinocultores da região (vinculados ao grupo Associação de Suinocultores da Zona Sul de Porto Alegre), produzindo produtos cárneos de origem e qualidade controladas. Para avaliar como está disposta a estrutura de governança desta cadeia produtiva, como ela se relaciona com o ambiente institucional que a delimita e se esta estrutura afeta a forma como o projeto é conduzido, foram utilizados conceitos da Nova Economia Institucional e da Economia de Custos de Transação. Foi possível identificar que o alto nível de especificidade de ativos e de incertezas nas transações são fontes significantes de custos de transações. Além disso, os estabelecimentos geradores de resíduo e os produtores agem de forma oportunista ao participar do Projeto e investimentos específicos demandados não são realizados devido à incerteza do ambiente. Em decorrência destes aspectos, emergem falhas organizacionais, identificadas nesta pesquisa como entraves na condução do projeto. Os principais entraves identificados para a condução do Projeto foram "alta de Licenciamento Ambiental", "Tratamento do Resíduo" e "Características da Associação", estando estes diretamente vinculados ao ambiente institucional. / The reuse of organic waste as animal diet is a common practice since the most ancient times. The identification of losses and food waste became a key strategy in the face of growing concern about the Global Food Security, and this mechanism that recycle of the waste generated is na important alternative. In Porto Alegre (RS State / Brazil) is leading the “Projeto de Reutilização de Resíduos Orgânicos de Restaurante via Suinocultura”, in which the municipal cleaning department mediates the transfer of food waste to pig farmers in the region (all of them linked to a Producers Association) to produce meat products with origin and quality controlled. To evaluate how is addressed the governance structure of this production chain, how is its relationship with the Institutional Environment and is this structure affects how the project is lead, were used concepts of the New Institutional Economics and the Economics of Transaction Costs. We observed that the high level of asset specificity and uncertainty in the transactions are significant sources of transaction costs. In addition, the waste generators establishments and producers act opportunistically to participate in the project and some demanded specific investments are not made due to environmental uncertainty. The main barriers identified (called in this study as organizational failures) for the well maintenance of the Project were ―Lack of Environmental Licensing‖, ―Treatment of Waste‖ and ―the Association Features‖, and these are directly linked to the institutional environment.

O tema referente ao aumento das exportações vem ganhando importância para o comércio exterior brasileiro. Desde 2003 as exportações brasileiras têm apresentado resultados recordes e o saldo da balança comercial acompanha este resultado. Entretanto, as exportações brasileiras tornam-se inexpressivas se comparadas às exportações que ocorrem no mundo, pois elas representam somente pouco mais de 1% das exportações mundiais. Um dos fatores responsáveis por este resultado seria a incidência de barreiras comerciais aos produtos brasileiros exportados, uma vez que estas barreiras aumentam os custos das transações envolvidos nos processos de exportações e são capazes de torná-los inviáveis. Assim, este trabalho possui como objetivo principal utilizar a abordagem da nova economia institucional (NEI) para analisar o desempenho de alguns dos principais produtos da pauta exportadora brasileira considerando a incidência de barreiras comerciais européias sobre eles. Para atingir este objetivo, faz-se necessário levantar as barreiras comerciais impostas pela União Européia, principal parceiro comercial do Brasil, aos produtos brasileiros e mostrar quais os possíveis reflexos que estas barreiras representam ao comportamento do comércio exterior brasileiro. / The subject that refers to the increase of the exports has been becoming an important issue to the brazilian international business. The brazilian exports have been showing an excellent performance since 2003 and the balance of trade imitates this result. However, the brazilian exports become insignificant when are compared to all exports that occur in the world, because they represent only around 1% of the global exports. One of the factors responsible for this result is the incidence of international trade barriers on brazilian exports, because these barriers increase the transaction costs involved in the export process and can discourage business. Therefore, the main objective of this research is to use the new institutional economics approach to analyze the performance of some of the most important products exported by Brazil considering the incidence of european trade barriers on them. To reach this aim, it is needed to show the trade barriers imposed by the European Union on brazilian exports and point the possible reflexes that these barriers represent to the brazilian international business. European Union represents the most important business partner of Brazil.