A fabricação de aços com elevada qualidade interna está diretamente relacionada ao entendimento de como inclusões não-metálicas se comportam ao longo de cada etapa do processo. Aços com maior limpeza inclusionária são cada vez mais solicitados à medida que aplicações mais nobres e específicas são exploradas, a exemplo das novas gerações de wheel hub. O aço SAE 52100, utilizado na fabricação de rolamentos, é um dos casos em que o controle para a quantidade, distribuição, tamanho e morfologia das inclusões deve ser rígido, para que atenda à aplicação a que se destina. A compreensão dos fenômenos que estão envolvidos na formação e os possíveis métodos para evitar ou tornar menos deletérias inclusões não-metálicas são de suma importância. Neste estudo, amostras de aço e escórias foram retiradas em várias etapas do processo de fabricação do aço em aciaria elétrica. As amostras de aço foram analisadas em MEV/EDS ASPEX (microscopia eletrônica de varredura acoplada à espectrometria de energia dispersiva automático) e de escórias via XRF (fluorescência de raios X). Aliado a isso, dados obtidos via simulação termodinâmica (software comercial FactSage) possibilitaram compreender melhor a interação entre escória-banho e de que forma parâmetros das escórias, por exemplo, influenciam na formação, modificação e remoção de inclusões não-metálicas em aços para rolamentos. A correlação entre os dados de processo e as análises realizadas permitiram mapear como cada operação adotada em refino secundário influencia na limpeza do aço ao final do processo. O objetivo deste estudo é estabelecer de forma clara como as inclusões no aça SAE 52100 com processo de produção específico se comportam ao longo do processamento em Aciaria Elétrica. Além disso, visa estudar de forma mais clara como as interações escória/banho influenciam na modificação da composição química das inclusões e na sua remoção ao final do processo. / The manufacture of steel with high internal quality is directly related to the understanding of how non-metallic inclusions behave along each step of the process. Steels with higher inclusions cleanliness are increasingly requested as more noble and specific applications are explored, as the new generation of wheel hub. The SAE 52100 steel, used in the manufacture of bearings, is one case that the control for the amount, distribution, size and morphology of the inclusions must be hard to meet the application for that it is intended. The understanding of the phenomena involved in the formation and the possible methods to prevent or to turn less harmful non-metallic inclusions are too important. In this study, steel and slag samples were taken at various stages of the meltshop process. The steel samples were analyzed by SEM / EDS ASPEX (automatic scanning electron microscopy coupled to energy dispersive spectrometry) and slag via XRF (X-ray fluorescence). Allied to this, data via thermodynamic simulation (commercial software FactSage) allowed better understanding of the interaction between slag-bath and how parameters of slag, for example, influence the formation, modification and removal of non-metallic inclusions in bearings steel. The correlation between the process data and the analyzes, allow map how each operation adopted in secondary metallurgy influence on steel cleanliness at the end of the process. The objective of this study is to establish clearly how the inclusions in the SAE 52100 steel with specific production process behave throughout Meltshop process. In addition, it aims to study more clearly how the slag / bath interactions influence the modification of the chemical composition of the inclusions and their removal at the end of the process.

This study explores the possibility of prediction and modification of some of the physicochemical properties of non-metallic inclusions by considering top slag-steel-ladle equilibria in an ASEA-SKF ladle furnace. To test the reliability of an available computational thermodynamic computer program, the first sub project was done. It was concluded that LiMeS, an interface for Thermo-Calc, is a useful tool for slag-steel equilibrium calculations. The second sub project was set out to find some model/s that could calculate the most accurate oxygen activity of molten steel compared to the measured one. This study concluded that both Wagner’s and Turkdogan's equations are useful. It was further seen that increasing the Al contents in the molten steel, increasing the CaO/Al2O3 ratio in the top slag, and reducing the temperature, resulted in reduction of the oxygen activity of the molten steel. In the third sub project a comparison was made between measured CaO and Al2O3 (normalised to CaO-Al2O3) in top slag, calcium aluminate inclusions, and the results of theoretical calculations. The average contents of CaO and Al2O3 in all inclusions were close to the composition of the phase Ca12Al14O33 and the contents of CaO and Al2O3 in the slags were close to the composition of the phase Ca3Al2O6 in the binary phase diagram of CaO-Al2O3. The forth sub project set out to study the effect of vacuum degassing time on non-metallic inclusions. It was concluded that during the vacuum degassing process the share of calcium aluminates compared to spinels, Ca content of the oxides, and the average equivalent circle diameters of the oxides were increasing, and oxides tended to form spherical shapes. Finally, based on the preceding four sub projects, the fifth sub project aimed to optimize the steel treatment in an ASEA-SKF ladle furnace. The final results showed that by adding 200 kg fluorite to the top slag of 1200 kg, it was possible to achieve a sulphur content of less than 10 ppm in the steel and a sulphur ratio between slag and steel of 1570, and at the same time reduce the oxygen activity of the molten steel and the degassing time. / <p>QC 20120917</p>

A fabricação de aços com elevada qualidade interna está diretamente relacionada ao entendimento de como inclusões não-metálicas se comportam ao longo de cada etapa do processo. Aços com maior limpeza inclusionária são cada vez mais solicitados à medida que aplicações mais nobres e específicas são exploradas, a exemplo das novas gerações de wheel hub. O aço SAE 52100, utilizado na fabricação de rolamentos, é um dos casos em que o controle para a quantidade, distribuição, tamanho e morfologia das inclusões deve ser rígido, para que atenda à aplicação a que se destina. A compreensão dos fenômenos que estão envolvidos na formação e os possíveis métodos para evitar ou tornar menos deletérias inclusões não-metálicas são de suma importância. Neste estudo, amostras de aço e escórias foram retiradas em várias etapas do processo de fabricação do aço em aciaria elétrica. As amostras de aço foram analisadas em MEV/EDS ASPEX (microscopia eletrônica de varredura acoplada à espectrometria de energia dispersiva automático) e de escórias via XRF (fluorescência de raios X). Aliado a isso, dados obtidos via simulação termodinâmica (software comercial FactSage) possibilitaram compreender melhor a interação entre escória-banho e de que forma parâmetros das escórias, por exemplo, influenciam na formação, modificação e remoção de inclusões não-metálicas em aços para rolamentos. A correlação entre os dados de processo e as análises realizadas permitiram mapear como cada operação adotada em refino secundário influencia na limpeza do aço ao final do processo. O objetivo deste estudo é estabelecer de forma clara como as inclusões no aça SAE 52100 com processo de produção específico se comportam ao longo do processamento em Aciaria Elétrica. Além disso, visa estudar de forma mais clara como as interações escória/banho influenciam na modificação da composição química das inclusões e na sua remoção ao final do processo. / The manufacture of steel with high internal quality is directly related to the understanding of how non-metallic inclusions behave along each step of the process. Steels with higher inclusions cleanliness are increasingly requested as more noble and specific applications are explored, as the new generation of wheel hub. The SAE 52100 steel, used in the manufacture of bearings, is one case that the control for the amount, distribution, size and morphology of the inclusions must be hard to meet the application for that it is intended. The understanding of the phenomena involved in the formation and the possible methods to prevent or to turn less harmful non-metallic inclusions are too important. In this study, steel and slag samples were taken at various stages of the meltshop process. The steel samples were analyzed by SEM / EDS ASPEX (automatic scanning electron microscopy coupled to energy dispersive spectrometry) and slag via XRF (X-ray fluorescence). Allied to this, data via thermodynamic simulation (commercial software FactSage) allowed better understanding of the interaction between slag-bath and how parameters of slag, for example, influence the formation, modification and removal of non-metallic inclusions in bearings steel. The correlation between the process data and the analyzes, allow map how each operation adopted in secondary metallurgy influence on steel cleanliness at the end of the process. The objective of this study is to establish clearly how the inclusions in the SAE 52100 steel with specific production process behave throughout Meltshop process. In addition, it aims to study more clearly how the slag / bath interactions influence the modification of the chemical composition of the inclusions and their removal at the end of the process.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-08T15:56:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rinaldo Puff.pdf: 11901534 bytes, checksum: 902429cd8bc8c70d6eae9029243c8969 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-07-10 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This thesis was motivated by the study of voids and non-metallic inclusions influence on the high cycle fatigue of ferrous materials like steel, powder metal and gray cast iron. A second objective was to obtain simpler parameters, like the ones measured in hardness, static bending or axial tests, to evaluate materials in early phases of projects, in a way to avoid long fatigue tests. Initially the average fatigue strength was obtained for a high carbon steel. The effect of a silicon oxide inclusion near the surface on the performance of heavy-duty Cr-Si spring wire was also analyzed. The evaluation was done in terms of stress concentrating on the inclusion contours, due to the shot peening application on the surface and normal fluctuating loads. Mechanical properties of powder metal and cast iron were revised. Static tests without and with the presence of notches were performed, with the objective of obtaining a static notch sensitivity factor, to correlate with torsion fatigue results. The relation between hardness and torsion fatigue strength was evaluated for the cast iron, and simulations using linear elastic and nonlinear materials were performed to obtain geometric stress concentrating factors. A mesoscale simulation was done in plane stress, making it possible to evaluate local stress concentration in the cast iron matrix. / Esta tese foi motivada pelo estudo da influência de vazios e inclusões não metálicas na fadiga de alto ciclo de materiais ferrosos como aços, materiais obtidos por metalurgia do pó e ferros fundidos cinzentos. Foi objetivo também, avaliar parâmetros de medição mais simples, como os obtidos de ensaios de dureza e de flexão ou tração estáticos, como forma de avaliar materiais em fases iniciais de projeto, evitando-se longos ensaios de fadiga. Inicialmente obteve-se a resistência à fadiga de alto ciclo de um aço de alto teor de carbono. Analisou-se também o efeito da presença de uma inclusão de óxido de silício próximo à superfície de um arame de aço Cr-Si utilizado em molas submetidas a cargas reversas. A análise foi feita em termos de concentração de tensão nos contornos da inclusão, devido à aplicação de shot peening na superfície e também devido às cargas de operação. Uma revisão de propriedades mecânicas de aços obtidos por metalurgia do pó e do ferro fundido foi realizada, assim como ensaios estáticos sem e com entalhe, no intuito de obter um fator de sensibilidade ao entalhe estático, como forma de correlacionar com a sensibilidade ao entalhe na fadiga em torção. Foi avaliada a relação entre a dureza do ferro fundido e a sua resistência à fadiga na torção e realizadas simulações com material linear elástico e não linear para obter um fator de concentração de tensão geométrico. Uma simulação em mesoescala em estado plano de tensão foi realizada, podendo-se determinar a concentração de tensões locais na matriz do ferro fundido.

A fabricação de aços com elevada qualidade interna está diretamente relacionada ao entendimento de como inclusões não-metálicas se comportam ao longo de cada etapa do processo. Aços com maior limpeza inclusionária são cada vez mais solicitados à medida que aplicações mais nobres e específicas são exploradas, a exemplo das novas gerações de wheel hub. O aço SAE 52100, utilizado na fabricação de rolamentos, é um dos casos em que o controle para a quantidade, distribuição, tamanho e morfologia das inclusões deve ser rígido, para que atenda à aplicação a que se destina. A compreensão dos fenômenos que estão envolvidos na formação e os possíveis métodos para evitar ou tornar menos deletérias inclusões não-metálicas são de suma importância. Neste estudo, amostras de aço e escórias foram retiradas em várias etapas do processo de fabricação do aço em aciaria elétrica. As amostras de aço foram analisadas em MEV/EDS ASPEX (microscopia eletrônica de varredura acoplada à espectrometria de energia dispersiva automático) e de escórias via XRF (fluorescência de raios X). Aliado a isso, dados obtidos via simulação termodinâmica (software comercial FactSage) possibilitaram compreender melhor a interação entre escória-banho e de que forma parâmetros das escórias, por exemplo, influenciam na formação, modificação e remoção de inclusões não-metálicas em aços para rolamentos. A correlação entre os dados de processo e as análises realizadas permitiram mapear como cada operação adotada em refino secundário influencia na limpeza do aço ao final do processo. O objetivo deste estudo é estabelecer de forma clara como as inclusões no aça SAE 52100 com processo de produção específico se comportam ao longo do processamento em Aciaria Elétrica. Além disso, visa estudar de forma mais clara como as interações escória/banho influenciam na modificação da composição química das inclusões e na sua remoção ao final do processo. / The manufacture of steel with high internal quality is directly related to the understanding of how non-metallic inclusions behave along each step of the process. Steels with higher inclusions cleanliness are increasingly requested as more noble and specific applications are explored, as the new generation of wheel hub. The SAE 52100 steel, used in the manufacture of bearings, is one case that the control for the amount, distribution, size and morphology of the inclusions must be hard to meet the application for that it is intended. The understanding of the phenomena involved in the formation and the possible methods to prevent or to turn less harmful non-metallic inclusions are too important. In this study, steel and slag samples were taken at various stages of the meltshop process. The steel samples were analyzed by SEM / EDS ASPEX (automatic scanning electron microscopy coupled to energy dispersive spectrometry) and slag via XRF (X-ray fluorescence). Allied to this, data via thermodynamic simulation (commercial software FactSage) allowed better understanding of the interaction between slag-bath and how parameters of slag, for example, influence the formation, modification and removal of non-metallic inclusions in bearings steel. The correlation between the process data and the analyzes, allow map how each operation adopted in secondary metallurgy influence on steel cleanliness at the end of the process. The objective of this study is to establish clearly how the inclusions in the SAE 52100 steel with specific production process behave throughout Meltshop process. In addition, it aims to study more clearly how the slag / bath interactions influence the modification of the chemical composition of the inclusions and their removal at the end of the process.

Foram tomadas amostras de aço líquido referentes a três grupos de aço, a saber: (I) aços baixo-carbono (0,02 %C 0,08), acalmados ao alumínio; (II) aços peritéticos (0,09 %C 0,15), acalmados ao alumínio e silício; (III) aços ultrabaixo carbono ( C<35 ppm), acalmados ao alumínio.Os aços foram produzidos em aciaria do tipo LD e foram, a seguir, tratados em equipamentos de refino secundário, adequados a cada um dos casos.As amostras forma colhidas no distribuidor de uma máquina de lingotamento contínuo de placas, segundo critério que minimiza a possibilidade da ocorrência de interferências que pudessem mascarar o resultado do tratamento de refino secundário tais como re-oxidação do aço e coleta simultânea de escória. As amostras foram submetidas à análise de inclusões utilizando-se técnicas de microscopia óptica, microscopia eletrônica e micro-análise. Foi possível caracterizar as inclusões presentes em cada tipo de aço segundo a morfologia, o tamanho, a quantidade e a composição química. / Non-metallic inclusions in liquid samples of (I) low-carbon aluminium killed steel (0,02wpct C 0,08wpct), (II) peritetic aluminium and silicon killed steel (0,09wpct C 0,15wpct); (III) extra-low-carbon, aluminium killed steel (C<35 ppm) were taken from the tundish distributor of a continuous casting caster for steel plates according to a procedure that minimizes re-oxidation of steel and/or pick up of liquid slag. The samples were inspected through the following microstructural techniques: optical microscopy, electronic microscopy, and electron microprobe. Were possible to feature present inclusion in each kind of steel according to morphology, size, amout and chemical composition.

Utmattningsbrott är ett återkommande problem som uppstår i borrkronor. Atlas Copco Secoroc har tidigare gjort utmattningsprovningar på fyra serier provstavar. Serierna skiljer sig från varandra på så sätt att stålet är hårt respektive mjukt härdat. Det hårdhärdade stålet är indelat i två serier. På den ena har dragprovsutmattning utförts och på den andra roterande-böj utmattning. Det samma gäller för det mjukhärdade stålet. De brottytor som uppstått vid brott av dessa provningar har undersökts, brottsförskjutningen har mätts och brottytan har analyserats med SEM. Om en icke-metallisk inneslutning (slagg) hittats som startpunkt har fyra saker undersökts. Den största diametern för inneslutningen, hur långt från ytan av staven slaggen påträffats, vilka grundämnen som inneslutningen innehåller och hur dessa grundämnen ligger i inneslutningen. För att undersöka grundämnen i inneslutningen har EDS-analys använts och för att se grundämnens fördelning har EDS-mappning använts. På grund av den begränsade tiden till detta projekt har enbart tre av de fyra provstavsserierna undersökts. Datan som har tagits fram genom undersökningarna har jämförts med data från uppdragsgivaren för att hitta samband. Nedan följer några av de slutsatser som hittades med hjälp av denna undersökning: Den kemiska sammansättningen i inneslutningarna var väldigt lika varandra. Ingen slagg skiljer sig markant från de andra. Av de inneslutningar och avtryck som observerats hade 95 % rundaktig form. Mindre inneslutningar är att föredra framför större. Anledningen är att stål med mindre inneslutningar klarade av en högre spänning och eller fler cykler innan brott sker. Inneslutningar som var i materialet hade mindre inverkan på stålets utmattningshållfasthet, än vad de på i ytan hade. Resultaten i denna undersökning har väldigt stor spridning. För att kunna dra säkra slutsatser behövs ett större underlag. Vidare utmattningsprovningar och analyser av brottytorna är att rekommendera. / Fatigue failures are a recurring problem for drill heads. Atlas Copco Secoroc has previously done fatigue failure tests on four series of sample bars. The sample bars had been hardened in two different ways. For the two first series, hardness has been increased so the material was harder, while for the other two series material was softer than the previous series. Fatigue failure tests have been done using two different methods, rotating bending fatigue and direct force fatigue testing. The fracture surface that occurred after the performed tests has been investigated. Fracture displacement has been measured. The fracture surface was examined with SEM. If a non-metallic inclusion is the starting point of the crack four different things were then investigated. The largest diameter of the inclusion, how far from the surface of the bar the slag is found, what kind of chemical elements it contains and how these elements are located through the inclusion. EDS-analysis were used to examine the chemical elements in the inclusion and EDS-mapping to see the location of the elements. Due to the limited time of this project three of the four sample bar series has been studied. The data that has been produced from these studies was then compared to the data from the costumer to find any connections. Below follows some of the conclusions that were found with the help of this study: The chemical compositions of the inclusions where very similar. No slags distinguish itself significantly from any other. 95% of the inclusions and imprints that has been observed where round shaped. Smaller inclusions are to be preferred to larger. The reason is that metal with smaller inclusions was able to cope with higher stress and or more cycles before fracture occurs. Inclusions that where found inside the material had less effect on the fatigue life for the steel then the ones on the surface. The results that has emerged from this study has a very wide distribution. To make reliable conclusions more data is needed for support. Further fatigue testing and analysis of fracture surfaces is recommended.

This thesis focus on investigations of the influence of non-metallic inclusions on corrosion in steel samples taken at different stages of the steel production when producing pipeline steels. The electrolytic extraction technique was used to extract inclusions from these steel samples and thereafter studying them using scanning electron microscopy in combination with energy dispersive microscopy. This approach enabled three-dimensional evaluations of different non-metallic inclusions present in two metal samples of low-carbon Ca-treated pipeline steels. The modification of the inclusion characteristics was investigated and compared for steel samples taken from various stages of the smelting production process. Thereafter, the corrosion resistance of these steels was discussed depending on the characteristics of non-metallic inclusions present in the steel. In addition, this study also presents a new method of soft chemical extraction for qualitative and quantitative evaluations of the initial corrosion processes of a steel matrix surrounding various non-metallic inclusions. The results showed that the initial dissolution of the steel matrix started in areas surrounding CaS inclusions or inclusion phases containing a CaS phase. Furthermore, the results showed that no dissolution of the metal matrix surrounding CaO·Al2O3 and TiN inclusions could be detected.     Key words: pipeline steels, Ca-treatment, non-metallic inclusions, electrolytic extraction, corrosion, chemical extraction. / Sammanfattning Denna avhandling fokuserar på påverkan av icke-metalliska inneslutningar på korrosion i stålprover tagna under olika delar av ståltillverkningsprocessen för tillverkning av rör. Den ektrolytiska extraktionstekniken användes för att extrahera dessa inneslutningar från stålprover och därefter undersöka dem med användande av svepelektronmikroskopi i kombination med energidispersiv spektroskopi. Detta angreppssätt möjliggjorde tredimensionella studier av olika icke-metalliska inneslutningar i två lågkolhaltiga kalciumbehandlade metallprover som används för tillverkning av rör. Modifieringen av inneslutningars karakteristik undersöktes i prover tagna från olika delar av ståltillverkningsprocessen. Därefter så undersöktes motståndet mot korrosion baserat på karakteristiken hos de icke-metalliska inneslutningar som återfanns i stålproverna. Denna studie presenterar också en ny metod baserad på en försiktig kemisk extraktion för kvalitativa såväl som kvantitativa utvärderingar av den initiala korrosionsprocessen av stålmatrisen som omger olika typer av icke-metalliska inneslutningar. Resultaten visade att den initiala upplösningen av stålmatrisen började runt CaS inneslutningar eller komplexa inneslutningar innehållande en CaS fas. Samtidigt så visade resultaten att metallmatriser som omger CaO·Al2O3 och TiN inneslutningar eller faser innehållande dessa inte löstes upp.   Nyckelord: stål för tillverkning av rör, kalciumbehandling, icke-metalliska inneslutningar, elektrolytisk extraktion, korrosion, kemisk extraktion.

In this master thesis, performed at Ovako Group R&amp;D (Hofors) a new machining test method for ranking heats of calcium-treated steels, M-Steels, has been proposed.  A total of six different heats of 42CrMo4-M steel in the quenched-and-tempered (Q+T) condition were tested. The proposed method uses dry turning with coated cemented carbide tools at a cutting speed of 225 m/min, 2 mm depth of cut, and a feed rate of 0.35 rev/min. The machining test is tuned so that M-Steels within medium-sized bar diameters and a small hardness interval can be differentiated by monitoring the flank wear progression of the cutting tool. This method is easily taught to a CNC-operator, it mimics real workshop conditions and can be repeated with relative robustness and ease of execution. It is possible to get a ranking where both the M-Steel treatment and hardness are included.  The major differentiator of tool wear performance was found to be a combination of wear of the outermost Al2O3 coating and the build-up and renewal of protective slag deposits on the tool rake. The rake face wear was found similar between the M-Steels samples, so it is thought that the effect of the slag deposits, as thermal barriers, affect the plastic deformation and wear of the flank face. Given the slag deposits sub-micron thickness, this indirect method of recording the flank wear is highly recommended to showcase the positive effects of the M-Steel in machining The inclusion content was evaluated according to ASTM E45 and with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) automated inclusion assessment. The link between the machinability performance of the M-Steels and their inclusion characteristics could not be clarified in this work.  Teknisk-naturvetenskapliga fakulteten

The non-metallic inclusions (NMI) have large influence on steel properties. Therefore, evaluation of inclusion size, number, composition and morphology by using modern analytical techniques are very important for control of steel production and steel quality. Three dimensional analysis method of electrolytic extraction is applied in this work. Metals are dissolved and undissolved inclusions are collected on the film filter. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) with Energy Dispersive Spectrometer (EDS) is applied to observe different non-metallic inclusions. Apart from electrolytic extraction, several other different methods can be used to analyse the inclusions. Each of them has their advantages and drawbacks. A part of this work compares different methods for investigation of inclusions. To modify the inclusion size, number and morphology, calcium or zirconium can be added in to the steel with certain amount according to the steel grade. This work discussed how inclusion size, number and morphology changed after the modification. In samples of Heat A, the addition of Zr leads to the appearance of ZrO2 clusters. Large size particles disappeared while the peak value for the number of inclusions per unit volume didn’t decrease. The electrolytic extraction and fractional gas analysis (FGA) results show some differences on the inclusion compositions. In samples of Heats B and C, the effect of calcium treatment is investigated. Calcium treatment modified the spinels with large content of Al2O3 into spherical CaS+CaO-MgO-Al2O3 inclusions. Large size inclusions were removed after calcium treatment.Key