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Master of Science / Department of Biological & Agricultural Engineering / Gary A. Clark / This report presents the methods to determine the minimum number of collectors to accurately measure the coefficient of uniformity and the average depth of applied water from fixed plate and moving plate center pivot sprinkler irrigation systems. This research conducted an uniformity analysis and an average depth analysis. In the uniformity analysis, catch can collected data from center pivot system tests were divided into base sets of 60 data points. Each base set was further divided into subsets of 30 data points each. T-tests were used to compare the CU values from the base data sets with CU values from each of the subsets. In the average depth analysis, center pivot system catch can data were divided into base sets with 20 data points. Each base data set was divided into 19 subsets. The 1st subset was generated by removing an exterior data point from the base set which was identified by number 1. The 2nd subset was generated by removing other exterior data point (identified by number 20) from the previously generated subset (1st subset). In this manner, a total of 19 subsets for each base set were generated by removing an exterior point from each previous subset. The percent difference (change) in average depth of each subset from the value of the average depth of the base set was calculated. The percent difference in average depth was then plotted against the associated number of collectors. Both analyses documented that a decrease in the number of collectors from the original density of collectors is acceptable to determine the uniformity and averaged depth of applied water from center pivot spans. Results from the uniformity analysis demonstrated that 20 collectors were as effective as 60 collectors to quantify the uniformity of a system. The depth analysis showed that 9 to 12 collectors may be needed to measure the average depth of a system (or a portion of a system) to within 5% to 7.5% of the true value.

Increase in demand for uniform ceramic coatings on larger industrial components have led to a need for a PP-MOCVD coating system scale up. The objective of this thesis is to develop a fully functional coating system operating in the PP-MOCVD regime that is able to deposit thin film ceramic coatings on commercial or industrial components with complex 3D geometries. This can be achieved by applying engineering and vacuum science theories, coupled with the established fundamentals of PP-MOCVD. A larger system was designed and assembled around the boundaries set by the dimensions and geometry of a stainless steel water pump impellor acting as the base substrate. Most of the components were sourced off the shelf from vacuum and fluid specialists. Components which were unavailable for various reasons were designed, and machined in-house by the departmental workshop. Initial test depositions were conducted using small stainless steel disk substrates, heated using a resistive heater similar to the one utilised on the research scale system. The test depositions were performed with the heater and substrate combination placed in strategic locations. This is to test the overall uniformity of precursor flux in the chamber volume. The resulting coating uniformity on the disk surfaces were fair but problems such as the large collection of unreacted precursor on the chamber viewport and valve timing issues had to be addressed. Before making any improvements to the system, each of the process areas leading to a successful deposition needed to be understood. Five process areas were developed: ‘Liquid Delivery’, ‘Atomization’, ‘Evaporation’, ‘Transport and Reactor Geometry’, and ‘Droplet Management’. Each of the process areas were analysed individually and changes were made to push for a maximum evaporation efficiency. xviii The improved system provided opportunities to perform depositions that were once not possible for PP-MOCVD. Two sets of deposition tests were designed and conducted. Firstly, the improvements were justified with a series of depositions using flat stainless steel plates with dimensions 65x65x5mm. The other set of 3D case study depositions involve observing the effects of the operational parameters of PP-MOCVD on the uniformity and penetration depths of the coatings into different sized macro blind trenches. Five geometric setup conditions were used to justify the improvements made to the system. These are: ‘Substrate positioned in the direct line of spray’, ‘Use of an unheated receptor’, ‘Use of a heated receptor’, ‘Use of an unheated receptor with a non-axial substrate setup’, and “Choked Flow’. As expected, the uniformity of the coatings on both sides of the plate varied significantly when the substrate is placed over the line of sight of the precursor spray. Similarly, the coating produced under the induced choked flow condition resulted in low conformality. The introduction of an unheated receptor plate resulted in an increase in uniformity on both sides of the plate. Further prove that PP-MOCVD is geometry independent is provided by the deposition made with the non-axial substrate placement resulting in a coating of similar result to the unheated receptor. The use of a heated receptor provided a source for a secondary evaporation of the larger precursor droplets collected resulting in an increase in coating thickness while maintaining good conformality. The effects of temperature, pressure, injection volume, and concentration were explored in the final case study. With maximum depths of 50mm, the macro blind trenches has an aspect ratio of 1:1 and cross-sectional areas of 3x3mm, 9x9mm, and 15x15mm. The final results show that as the temperature rises, the depth penetrated into the trench decreases. This could be due to the change in rate limiting steps as homogeneous reactions begin to increase at higher temperatures. Similar trends were observed with increasing pressure. As the pressure difference between the volume of the trenches and the rest of the chamber decreases, the push needed to xix force the precursor down the trench also decreases, resulting in less depth penetration. The effects of injection volume and concentration observed, can be explained by how much precursor molecules are present during one pulse cycle. The more that is available at any given time, the more likely a reaction will occur and deeper the penetration will get. Of course a ceiling or a limit exists where the molecules in the chamber will get evacuated without being reacted. The future work made possible as a result of the scaled up system are proposed. These include a scale up of the operational parameters to suit any given substrate geometry, improvements to the heating source to achieve greater thermal uniformity, further improvements to the overall system accessibility, and performing other depositions using different substrate materials and precursor types.

Microelectronics integration continuously follows the trend of miniaturisation for which the technologies enabling fine pitch interconnection are in high demand. The recent advancement in the assembly of Hybrid Pixel Detectors, a high resolution detecting and imaging device, is an example of where novel materials and processes can be applied for ultra-fine pitch interconnections. For this application, indium is often used for the fine pitch bump bonding process due to its unique properties that make it especially suitable, in particular in a cryogenic environment where some types of detector have to serve. Indium bumps are typically fabricated through vacuum evaporation at the wafer level; however, this thesis investigates an alternative low cost manufacturing process at the wafer scale for the deposition of indium micro-bumps through electroplating. The work has placed its emphasis on the requirements of future technologies which will enable a low temperature (<150oC), high density interconnection (> 40,000 IOs/cm2) with a high throughput and high production yield. This research is a systematic investigation of the wafer-scale indium bumping process through electrodeposition using indium sulphamate solution. An intensive experimental study of micro-bump formation has been carried out to elaborate the effects of two of the main electroplating factors that can significantly influence the quality of bumps in the course of electrodeposition, namely the current distribution and mass transport. To adjust the current density distribution, various waveforms of current input, including direct current (DC), unipolar pulse current and bipolar pulse reverse current, were employed in the experiments. To assist mass transportation prior to or during electroplating, acoustic agitation including ultrasonic agitation at 30 kHz frequency as well as megasonic agitation at 1 MHz, were utilised. The electrochemical properties of the indium sulphamate solution were first investigated using non-patterned plain substrates prior to indium bumping trials. This provided understanding of the microstructural characteristics of indium deposits produced by electroplating and, through cathodic polarisation measurements, the highest current density suitable for electrodeposition was achieved as approximately 30 mA/cm2 when electroplating was carried out at room temperature and with no agitation applied. The typical surface morphology of DC electroplated indium contained a granular structure with a surface feature size as large as 10 µm. Pulse and pulse reverse electroplating significantly altered the surface morphology of the deposits and the surface became much smoother. By introducing acoustic agitation, the current density range suitable for electrodeposition could be significantly expanded due to the greater mass transfer, which led to a higher speed of deposition with high current efficiency. Wafer-scale indium bumping (15 µm to 25 µm diameter) at a minimum pitch size of 25 µm was successfully developed through electroplating trials with 3 inch test wafers and subsequently applied onto the standard 4 inch wafers. The results demonstrate the capability of electroplating to generate high quality indium bumps with ultrafine pitch at a high consistency and yield. To maximise the yield, pre-wetting of the ultrafine pitch photoresist patterns by both ultrasonic or megasonic agitation is essential leading to a bumping yield up to 99.9% on the wafer scale. The bump profiles and their uniformity at both the wafer and pattern scale were measured and the effects of electrodeposition regimes on the bump formation evaluated. The bump uniformity and microstructure at the feature scale were also investigated by cross-sectioning the electroplated bumps from different locations on the wafers. The growth mechanism of indium bumps were proposed on the basis of experimental observation. It was found that the use of a conductive current thief ring can homogenise the directional bump uniformity when the electrical contact is made asymmetrically, and improve the overall uniformity when the electrical contact is made symmetrically around the periphery of the wafer. Both unipolar pulse electroplating and bipolar pulse reverse electroplating improved the uniformity of the bump height at the wafer scale and pattern scale, and the feature scale uniformity could be significantly improved by pulse reverse electroplating. The best uniformity of 13.6% for a 4 inch wafer was achieved by using pulse reverse electroplating. The effect of ultrasonic agitation on the process was examined, but found to cause damage to the photoresist patterns if used for extended periods and therefore not suitable for use throughout indium bumping. Megasonic agitation enabled high speed bumping without sacrifice of current efficiency and with little damage to the photoresist patterns. However, megasonic agitation tended to degrade some aspects of wafer scale uniformity and should therefore be properly coupled with other electroplating parameters to assist the electroplating process.

Bien qu'elle constitue toujours l'orthodoxie en philosophie de l'esprit, la théorie humienne de la motivation (selon laquelle la motivation origine toujours d'un désir et jamais d'une croyance seule) a été plusieurs fois critiquée au cours des dernières décennies. Je passe ici en revue les principaux arguments avancés à la fois pour appuyer et rejeter cette théorie. Du côté humien, j'examine l'argument des croyances identiques, l'argument de la direction d'ajustement et l'argument de l'uniformité théorique. Du côté anti-humien, l'objection voulant que la notion de direction d'ajustement soit circulairement caractérisée, l'objection des croyances irrationnelles et l'objection selon laquelle certains états mentaux présenteraient deux directions d'ajustement. Je conclus qu'aucune de ces objections ne devrait nous conduire à rejeter la théorie humienne, mais aussi que cette dernière trouve son principal appui du côté des considérations relatives à l'uniformité théorique et non du côté de l'argument de la direction d'ajustement comme le pensent plusieurs. / Although remaining orthodoxy in philosophy of mind, the humean theory of motivation (according to which motivation always comes from a desire, never from a belief alone) has often been critized over the last decades. Here I review the main arguments put forward both to support and reject this theory. On the humean side, I examine the argument from identical beliefs, the direction of fit argument and the argument from theoretical uniformity. On the anti-humean side, the objection that direction of fit caracterizations are circular, the objection from irrational beliefs and the objection according to which there could be mental states with two direction of fit. I conclude that none of these objections should lead us to reject the humean theory, but also that this one finds its main support in theoretical unifomity considerations and not in the direction on fit argument as many think.

Visando caracterizar a dinâmica de crescimento do Pinus taeda no sul do Brasil, este estudo teve os seguintes objetivos: i) determinar os principais fatores edafo-climáticos e do povoamento associados à ampla variação de produtividade da espécie; e ii) caracterizar padrões de crescimento e uniformidade, do plantio até 9 anos em diferentes regiões edafoclimáticas. Para isso, foram selecionadas 24 parcelas sem desbaste (700m²), com aproximadamente 1450 árvores ha-1, entre 8 a 10 anos de idade, do projeto PPPIB (Produtividade Potencial do Pinus no Brasil), as quais estão localizadas em Jaguariaíva-PR, Ponta Grossa-PR, Rio Negrinho-SC e Três Barras-SC. O clima destas regiões é temperado úmido, com precipitação média anual de 1477mm, com temperaturas máxima, média e mínima de 24,3ºC, 17,9ºC e 12,7ºC. Todas as variáveis biométricas foram determinadas através do banco de dados de inventário (2006-2009), dados de cubagem, análise de tronco (discos), de anéis de crescimento (baguetas) e massa específica aparente (densitometria de raios-X). Coletaram-se solos (0-20cm) nas parcelas de inventário, e obtiveram-se os dados climáticos de estações meteorológicas locais. Através das análises de disco determinaram-se os índices de sítio (idade base 10 anos), e através da bagueta e densitometria de raios-X, estimaramse o padrão de crescimento de todas as parcelas em volume (m³ha-1) e matéria seca (Mgha-1) e seus Incrementos Médios Anuais e Correntes Anuais até o 9º ano. A uniformidade foi avaliada através do coeficiente de variação de volume das árvores dentro das parcelas (CVV) e da percentagem de biomassa em 50% das árvores mais finas (PB50), dos 2 aos 9 anos. As regiões apresentaram grande variação das propriedades físico-químicas do solo, como profundidade (30-140cm), teor de matéria orgânica (23 a 65g dm-3), teor de argila (20 a 85%), quantidade de N (500 a 5300kg ha- 1), e quantidade de P (9 a 84kg ha-1). Aos 9 anos de idade todas parcelas não haviam culminado seu crescimento, e o incremento médio anual com casca (IMAc9), o estoque de biomassa do lenho e índice de sítio de idade base 10 (IS10) variaram de 15 a 35m³ ha-1 ano-1, de 55 a 130Mg ha-1, e 12 a 19m, respectivamente, com maiores valores em Três Barras. Esta caracterização não era possível de ser detectada antes do 6º ano, mostrando que as decisões silviculturais ou genéticas precoces em Pinus precisam ser cuidadosamente consideradas. A produtividade (IMA) foi positivamente relacionada com o IS10, e ambos estiveram relacionados com os maiores teores de matéria orgânica do solo, quantidade de nitrogênio disponível e menores médias de temperatura mínima e déficit hídrico. As florestas mais produtivas se mostraram também mais uniformes (menores CVV e maiores PB50), mas confundidas com material genético superior. Assim, o estudo corrobora o papel dos nutrientes, solos de boa drenagem, e condição climática amena e com baixo déficit hídrico na explicação da elevada produtividade do P.taeda no sul do Brasil, comparativamente a sua região de origem. Baseado nestes resultados, estudos de fertilização, material genético e uso rotineiro de análise do tronco, associado à densitometria de raios-X, podem ser recomendados para o P. taeda. / The study was designed to characterize the growth dynamics of Pinus taeda in south of Brazil and had the following objectives: i) determine the main edaphic, climatic and stand factors associated with the range in productivity of the species; and ii) characterize the growth patterns and uniformity, from planting until 9 years-old, across different edaphic and climatic regions. A total of 24 unthinned plots were selected (700m2), with stocking of 1450 trees ha-1, between 8 and 10 years old, from the PPPIB project (Pine Potential Productivity in Brazil), and are located in Jaguariaíva-PR, Ponta Grossa-PR, Rio Negrinho-SC and Três Barras-SC. The climate of these regions is temperate humid (Cfb), with mean annual precipitation of 1477mm, and maximum, mean and minimum temperatures of 24.3ºC, 17.9ºC e 12.7ºC. The biometric variables were assessed using inventory datasets (2006-2009), destructive sampling, bole analysis (disks), growth rings (stem coring), and specific gravity (X-ray densitometry). Soil samples (0-20cm) were collected on inventory plots, and climatic data were obtained from local weather stations. Site index (base age 10 years) were determined using bole disks, and growth patterns of all plots (m3ha-1), dry mass (Mgha-1), mean and current annual increments until 9th year were determined using stem coring and X-ray densitometry. Stand uniformity was evaluated using tree volume coefficient of variation within plots (CVV) and percentage of biomass for the 50% thinnest trees (PB50), from ages 2 to 9. Regions showed a wide range of soil physical and chemical properties, such as soil depth (30-140cm), organic matter levels (23 a 65g dm-3), clay content (20 a 85%), amount of N (500 a 5300kg ha-1), and amount of P (9 a 84kg ha-1). At 9 years old all the plots did not reached their maximum growth; and mean annual increment with bark (IMAc9), standing stem biomass and site index at base age 10 (IS10) ranged from 15 to 35m³ ha-1 year-1, 55 to 130Mg ha-1, and 12 a 19m, respectively, with higher values on Tres Barras region. This characterization was not possible to be detected before the 6th year, showing that early silvicultural and genetic decisions in Pinus need to be carefully considered. The productivity (IMAc9) was positively related with IS10, and both were related with higher levels of soil organic matter and available nitrogen, and with lower averages of minimum temperatures and water deficit. The most productive forests showed to be more uniform also (lower CVV and higher PB50), but confounded with superior genetic material. Therefore, the study corroborates with the role of nutrients, well drained soils, mild climatic conditions and low water deficit to explain the high yileds of P.taeda in Brazil, comparatively to its original region. Based on these results, studies of fertilization, genetic material and more frequent use of bole analysis, associated with X-ray densitometry, might be recommended for P. taeda.

A utilização de enzimas como aditivos alimentares para poedeiras comerciais pode aumentar a digestibilidade dos nutrientes dos ingredientes da dieta. Assim, o objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos da suplementação de enzima xilanase em dietas de poedeiras comerciais à base de milho e soja sobre desempenho, morfologia intestinal e incremento de energia da dieta. Foram utilizadas 400 poedeiras da linhagem Hy-line, variedade W36 com duas semanas de idade submetidas às dietas experimentais até as 80 semanas de idade. As aves foram distribuídas em delineamento inteiramente casualisado em esquema fatorial 2x2 (nível de energia x inclusão de xilanase), totalizando 4 tratamentos com 10 repetições de 10 aves cada. Os tratamentos foram: controle positivo (dieta balanceada para respectiva idade); controle positivo+xilanase; controle negativo (dieta com redução de 100 kcal/kg no nível de EM); controle negativo+xilanase. Nas fases de cria e recria (2 a 6 e 7 a 17 semanas), foram realizadas as avaliações para peso corporal, ganho de peso, consumo de ração, conversão alimentar, viabilidade criatória e uniformidade do lote. As seis e 16 semanas foram colhidos fragmentos de intestino das porções duodeno, jejuno e íleo para mensurações de altura de vilo e profundidade de cripta. Durante a fase de postura (18 a 80 semanas) foram avaliadas características de desempenho (ganho de peso, consumo de ração, produção, peso e massa de ovos, conversão alimentar e viabilidade criatória). Foram realizados ainda, quatro ensaios de digestibilidade (14, 36, 60 e 80 semanas) para determinação da energia metabolizável aparente e energia metabolizável aparente corrigida das dietas e coeficientes de metabolizabilidade dos nutrientes. Conclui-se que a suplementação de xilanase em dietas de poedeiras com redução de 100 kcal/kg de energia metabolizável promove melhor formação da mucosa intestinal e o fornecimento de dietas com níveis de energia adequados associadas à suplementação de xilanase proporciona valores de energia metabolizável (EMA) e energia metabolizável corrigida (EMAn) superiores em relação aos valores obtidos com dietas sem suplementação de enzima para fase de postura. Além disso, a adição de xilanase em dietas de poedeiras comerciais, a base de milho e soja possibilita a redução do nível de energia da dieta sem prejudicar o desempenho das aves. / The use of enzymes as feed additives for laying hens can increase the digestibility of nutrients present in diet. Thus, the objective was to evaluate the effects of xylanase enzyme supplementation in diets of laying hens based corn and soybean on performance, gut morphology and increased energy diet. Were used 400 layers of Hy-line W36 with two weeks of age fed experimental diets until 80 weeks of age. The birds were distributed to a completely randomized design in a 2x2 factorial (including energy level x xylanase), totaling four treatments with 10 replicates of 10 birds each. The treatments were: positive control (balanced diet to the age), positive control + xylanase, negative control (diet with a reduction of 100 kcal/kg ME) and negative control + xylanase. In phase of rearing (2 to 6 and 7 to 17 weeks), evaluations were made for body weight, weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion, livability and uniformity. At six and 16 weeks were collected fragments intestine of portions duodenum, jejunum and ileum for measurement of villus height and crypt depth. During the laying phase (18 to 80 weeks) were evaluated performance characteristics (weight gain, feed intake, production, weight and egg mass, feed conversion and livability). Were also conducted four assays of digestibility (14, 36, 60 and 80 weeks) to determine the apparent metabolizable energy and apparent metabolizable energy corrected, coefficients of metabolization of diet nutrients. It was concluded that supplementation xylanase in diets of laying hens with reduction of 100 kcal/kg of metabolizable energy promotes better formation of the intestinal mucosa and compensates for the reduction of dietary energy, providing metabolizable energy and feeding diets with energy levels associated with adequate supplementation of xylanase provide values metabolizable energy and corrected metabolizable energy above to the values obtained with diets without supplementation enzyme to the production phase. Furthermore, the addition of xylanase in diets for laying hens, based corn and soybeans, allows reduction in the level of dietary energy without damaging the performance of birds.

O diagnóstico radiográfico é baseado na análise das diferenças das densidades ópticas (DO) do filme, que deveriam ser provocadas apenas pelas estruturas anatômicas do paciente. Entretanto, a intensidade do feixe de raios X não é uniforme devido a um efeito intrínseco do equipamento de aquisição de imagem, conhecido como efeito \"heel\". Estas variações prejudicam tanto a análise visual quanto o processamento computacional (CAD) das pequenas estruturas anatômicas. O presente trabalho apresenta um método computacional que corrige as diferenças de densidades ópticas produzidas na radiografia pelo efeito \"heel\". Esse método foi implementado utilizando ambiente de programação Delphi, rotinas em C e Matlab. O método simula a distribuição da intensidade ao longo do campo de radiação, determinando o caminho de absorção que os fótons sofrem dentro do alvo utilizando os modelos de Kramers e Fritz Livingston. Calcula a correlação espacial entre a radiografia e a imagem simulada, localizando o eixo anodo/catodo e o centro do campo nas duas imagens, empregando a função de correlação estatística de Pratt e a função de mapeamento de Zitová e Flusser. Calcula tanto os percentuais de radiação recebidos para cada ponto simulado em relação à radiação ao centro do campo, quanto os percentuais dos níveis de cinza de cada pixel da radiografia e corrige esse valor em função do correspondente na simulação. O algoritmo desenvolvido permitiu determinar a posição do centro do campo de radiação com precisão em torno de 1% e eliminou aproximadamente 90% do efeito \"heel\" na radiografia permitindo que os objetos apresentassem densidades ópticas coerentes com suas absorções específicas. Um estudo preliminar mostrou que esse método poderá ser utilizado como pré-processamento dos sistemas CAD. / The radiographic diagnosis is based on the analysis of the film optical density differences that should be created only by the patient anatomical structures. However, the intensity of the x-ray beam is not uniform due to an intrinsic effect to the image acquisition equipment, known as heel effect. These variations damage the visual analysis as well the (CAD) computer processing of the small anatomical structures. The current work presents a computer method that corrects the optical densities differences generated in the radiography by heel effect. This method was implemented using Delphi Programming Environment, routines in C and Matlab. The method simulates the intensity distribution along the radiation field, determining the absorption path that photons suffer inside the target using the models of Kramers and Fritz and Livingston. It calculates the space correlation between the radiography and the simulated image, determining the anode/cathode axis and the field center in the two images, using the statistics function of Pratt and the mapping function of Zitová and Flusser. It calculates as much the received radiation, percentage for each simulated point in relation the field center radiation, as the gray scales percentage of each radiography pixel and corrects their values as function of the correspondent in the simulation. The developed algorithm has allowed to determine the center position of the radiation field with about 1% precision and approximately eliminated 90%of the heel effect in the radiography, allowing the objects to present optical densities coherent with their specific absorptions. A preliminary study has showen that this method can be used as preprocessing of CAD systems.