Thesis (Ph. D.)--Oregon State University, 2008. / Printout. Includes bibliographical references. Also available on the World Wide Web.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, 2009. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Microsporidia are a unique phylum of ubiquitous fungal pathogens that are able to infect a wide variety of hosts, including economically and ecologically important organisms. Recently, global declines of the Western honeybee (Apis mellifera) have been associated with infections of the microsporidian pathogen Nosema ceranae. This species was originally described in the Asiatic honeybee (A. cerana), and its identification in global A. mellifera hives could result from a recent host transfer. Recent genome studies have found that global populations of this parasite from A. mellifera hives are polyploid and that humans may have fueled their global expansion. In this thesis, I investigate the genetic diversity of N. ceranae populations from within their native range (Thailand) and among different hosts (A. mellifera, A. cerana), putting them in context with other previously sequenced global populations. Using both PCR and genome-based methods, my findings reveal that Thai populations of N. ceranae exhibit interesting genetic differences from other global pathogen populations but also have some similarities. Thai N. ceranae populations share many single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with other global populations and appear to be clonal. However, in stark contrast with previous studies, these populations carry many SNPs not found in other global populations of this parasite, indicating that these populations have evolved in their current geographic location for some time. This genome analysis also indicates the potential presence of diploidy within Thai populations of N. ceranae and possible host-specific loss of heterozygosity. Overall, my findings begin to reveal interesting patterns of genetic diversity in N. ceranae populations that bring us one step closer to understanding the biology and genetics of this important honeybee pathogen.

The aim of the thesis was to evaluate the influence of mite Varroa destructor on the health of honeybees and the occurrence of viral diseases of bees. The presence of Nosema was also explored. The occurrence of deformed wing virus and acute bee paralysis virus was detected by RT-PCR method. Coprological examination proved the incidence of spore Nosema spp.

Les microalgues rouges de l’espèce Rhodella violacea produisent un exopolysaccharide soluble dans le milieu de culture. Au cours de ce travail, les conditions optimales de production ont été déterminées en étudiant l’activité photosynthétique et le milieu de culture des microalgues. La croissance cellulaire et la production d’EPS de R. violacea sont optimales avec un milieu de culture f/2 modifié, supplémenté en azote et en phosphore. L’irradiance optimale est de 420 μmol de photons.m-2.s-1, sous une température de 24°C avec un pH de 8,3. La culture de la microalgue en photobioréacteur de 5 L a permis la production optimale de 0,5 g.L-1 de polymère. Le polysaccharide produit est un protéoglycane de type xylane sulfaté et de haute masse molaire (1,2 106 g.mol-1), contenant également du rhamnose, du glucose, de l’arabinose, du galactose et de l’acide glucuronique. L’effet antiparasitaire des polymères de microalgues et de macroalgues a été testé sur des microsporidies, in vitro avec des fibroblastes de prépuce humain infestés par Encephalitozoon cuniculi et in vivo contre la nosémose des abeilles causée par Nosema ceranae. L’exopolymère de R. violacea empêche la croissance des microsporidies in vitro et in vivo, et conduit à une diminution de la mortalité des abeilles. D’autres molécules testées ont également une action antiparasitaire, les EPS de Porphyridium purpureum et marinum, et des carraghénanes sulfatés permettent également de diminuer la croissance des microsporidies et la mortalité des abeilles. / Red microalgae from Rhodella violacea species product a soluble exopolysaccharide release in the media. In this study, optimal culture conditions for exopolysaccharide production were investigated, following photosynthesis activity and culture conditions. This study allowed us to determinate R. violacea optimal media for growth and exopolysaccharide production, which is f/2 media supplemented in nitrogen and phosphorus. Optimal physicochemical parameters are an irradiance of 420 μmol photons.m-2.s-1, a temperature of 24°C, and a pH of 8.3. Photobioreactor of 5 L used to cultivate R. violacea in optimal conditions, gave 0.5 g.L-1 of EPS. Structural analysis of the EPS revealed the production of a proteoglycan, principally composed by xylose, sulfated and with a high molecular mass (1.2 106 g.mol-1). The polymer is complex, as it contains different monosaccharide: rhamnose, galactose, arabinose and glucuronic acid. The antiparasitic effect of polymers from microalgae, and macroalgae were investigated on microsporidia, in vitro against Encephalitozoon cuniculi using Human foreskin fibroblasts, and in vivo against Nosema ceranae using bees. Exopolysaccharide from R. violacea decreases microsporidia growth in vivo and in vitro. In addition, in vivo the polymer allows decrease in bees’ mortality. Polysaccharide from others origins also have antiparasitic effet, such as exopolymer from Porphyridium purpureum and marinum, and sulphated carragheenans which reduce microsporidia growth, and decrease bees’ mortality.

Microsporidia are obligate intracellular eukaryotic parasites related to fungi, possessing greatly reduced genomic and cellular components. The microsporidian Nosema ceranae threatens honeybee (Apis mellifera) populations. Nosemosis has a complex epidemiology affected by host, pathogen and environmental factors. Although a draft of the N. ceranae genome has been published, the molecular basis underpinning pathogenicity is not known. The lack of established culturing techniques and a tractable genetic system necessitates use of model systems for both host and parasite such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae. I hypothesise effectors essential to disease progression exist amongst N. ceranae secretome genes. In this study I have started characterising these genes using a combination of established and novel techniques for studying microsporidia proteins including bioinformatics, heterologous expression in S. cerevisiae, and the genome-wide analysis platform of Synthetic Genetic Arrays. This effort has yielded new insights into N. ceranae secreted proteins which lack similarity to known sequences. I identified N. ceranae protein NcS77 as a candidate effector implicated in targeting host nuclear pores. NcS50 and NcS85 co-localise with ERG6 a marker for lipid droplets (an organelle known to be targeted by another obligate intracellular pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis) when expressed in S. cerevisiae. N. ceranae polar tube proteins (PTP) induce filament formation when expressed in S. cerevisiae and PTP2 co-localises with the cell wall. Interestingly this phenotype is replicated by another secreted protein which may infer a common function. Together these data contribute to knowledge on N. ceranae pathology bringing us closer to understanding the disease and ultimately lead the way to mitigation.

The occurrence of Nosema disease, tracheal mites and the “pseudo-parasitic” behaviour of Cape honeybee workers when placed amongst African honeybees – known as the Cape Bee Problem – were studied over a 18 month period. Three surveys, approximately 6 months apart were done. The aims of this study were to establish the distribution and severity of the diseases and compare the disease with the presence of the Cape Bee Problem. Before this survey commenced European Foul Brood disease, Sacbrood (virus), Nosema, Brood nosema, and Tracheal mite have sporadically been reported in the summer rainfall region of South Africa. In the first survey 1005 colonies in 61 apiaries were surveyed, 803 colonies in 57 apiaries in the second, and 458 colonies in 41 apiaries in the third. Samples for disease and parasite analysis were taken at 4 colonies per apiary. Ten colonies per apiary were inspected for Cape Problem Bees, and samples of workers were collected and dissected at each of these colonies. Even with the addition of apiaries to 'fill-up' lost colonies during the second survey, 63% of all colonies were lost by the third survey. There was only a small difference in colony loss between sedentary and migratory beekeepers of 22% compared to 27%. Nosema was more prevalent amongst commercial beekeepers and increased in migratory operations during the survey period. The percentage of colonies infected increased during the survey period from 23% to 32% to 34%. The placement of colonies in Eucalyptus plantations may boost infection. Trachea mites seem to have spread quite rapidly in South Africa since its discovery. This parasitic mite was present in all regions, although in low numbers in three most northern regions. Sedentary colonies had higher levels of infestation than migratory colonies. The number of colonies infested diminished over the survey period, which may be a result of general colony loss. The Cape Problem Bee was less of a problem than anticipated. Colonies succumbed to Cape Problem Bees in all regions. When beekeepers reported high levels of infestation in their bee stocks the colonies would be dead within six months. In apiaries with low infestation the die-out was slower.

Tesis presentada a la Universidad de Chile para optar al grado de Magíster en Bioquímica área de especialización Bioquímica Ambiental y Memoria para optar al Título de Bioquímico / Las abejas llevan a cabo el mayor porcentaje de polinizaciones, tanto de plantas silvestres como domésticas, lo que les otorga una función invaluable para el medio ambiente y los productores que se benefician de ellas. En los últimos años se ha visto disminuido notoriamente su número, representado por la cantidad de colonias perdidas después de la temporada de invierno. Las colonias están sufriendo un síndrome denominado Desorden de Colapso de Colmena (DCC) que consiste en el abandono repentino de la colmena por la mayoría de las abejas obreras. Hasta ahora no se ha podido describir ningún agente que por sí solo desencadene el síndrome, sin embargo, se ha atribuido relevancia a distintos factores que podrían tener influencia en este fenómeno. Algunos de estos factores son patógenos, parásitos y pesticidas. Nosema ceranae es un microsporidio que inicialmente se encontraba en la abeja melífera asiática (Apis cerana) y que en los últimos años ha infectado a la abeja melífera occidental (Apis mellifera). Estudios han relacionado la presencia de N. ceranae con colmenas afectadas por DCC, postulándolo como un factor importante en el desarrollo del síndrome. Individualmente, N. ceranae induce estrés metabólico e inmunosupresión en abejas melíferas, lo que finalmente podría afectar a la colmena comprometiendo así su inmunidad social. La inmunidad social corresponde al conjunto de respuestas que los organismos sociales presentan frente a un patógeno o amenaza, que comprende principalmente cambios en el comportamiento y secreciones en el alimento que producen (jalea real y miel). La miel, además de ser el alimento para las abejas de la colmena, posee actividad antimicrobiana debido a la presencia de peróxido de hidrógeno, generado por la enzima glucosa oxidasa (GOX), metilglioxal (en el caso de la miel de Manuka) y defensina-1, lo que contribuye a la inmunidad social de la colmena. Defensina-1 es un péptido con actividad antimicrobiana producido por distintos tejidos en la abeja melífera, incluyendo las glándulas hipofaríngeas y mandibulares, desde donde se secreta hacia la miel y la jalea real. En este estudio se propone que N. ceranae produce una inmunosupresión en abejas melíferas, lo que se traduciría en una menor generación de peróxido de hidrógeno y presencia de defensina-1 en la miel, indicando un compromiso de su inmunidad social. Dado lo anterior, la hipótesis propuesta es “La miel producida por abejas de la especie Apis mellifera infectadas con el microsporidio Nosema ceranae contiene menor cantidad del péptido antimicrobiano defensina-1 y una actividad de glucosa oxidasa disminuida en relación a la producida por abejas no infectadas.” Los objetivos generales de la tesis fueron: A) Relacionar la presencia del péptido antimicrobiano defensina-1 y la actividad de glucosa oxidasa en miel con la infección por Nosema ceranae en abejas y; B) Contar con métodos de análisis simples para establecer la presencia de defensina-1 en miel basados en espectroscopía molecular. Para ello se obtuvo la fracción comprendida entre 3 y 10 kDa de muestras de miel obtenidas desde el valle central de la región de O’Higgins. Esta fracción se caracterizó mediante fluorescencia y resolución multivariada de curva (MCR), lo que permitió evidenciar la presencia de la defensina por detección del triptófano presente en el péptido. Además, en esta fracción se determinó la presencia de enlaces disúlfuro, asociados a la estructura de la defensina, cuya concentración estuvo correlacionada con la concentración relativa de triptófano en la misma. En la miel no fraccionada se determinaron la actividad de GOX y la actividad antibacteriana, las que estuvieron relacionadas con el contenido relativo de defensina-1. Por otra parte, se expresó y purificó defensina-1 recombinante desde E. coli la que fue sometida a la misma caracterización y/o análisis de la miel fraccionada, permitiendo así tener un patrón de comparación. Paralelamente se determinó la presencia de N. ceranae en las abejas de las colmenas muestreadas mediante recuento de esporas en el microscopio y amplificación de su material genético a través de PCR en tiempo real. Al evaluar el conjunto de resultados se observó que la miel producida por abejas infectadas o que habían sufrido una reciente infección con Nosema spp contenía mayor cantidad de defensina-1 y mayor acumulación de peróxido de hidrógeno en relación a la producida por abejas no infectadas, lo que demuestra que la infección habría inducido una mayor producción del péptido y GOX siendo reflejado en la miel. Esto último se contrapone a la hipótesis planteada inicialmente. Sin embargo, las mieles que presentaron esta relación tienen además un origen geográfico y floral común; lo que igualmente podría ser la causa de la relación observada o que la defensina-1 y GOX se expresen constitutivamente en mayor cantidad en estas colonias, presentando así una ventaja genética sobre otras ante posibles infecciones / Honey bees are responsible of the highest percentage of pollination, including wild and domesticated plants, which gives them a priceless function for environment and producers who benefit from them. In recent years their number has been reduced, represented in the loss of colonies after winter season. Colonies are suffering a syndrome called Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) which consists in the sudden abandonment of the colony by most of the worker bees. Until now there is no agent described that can trigger the syndrome by itself, however, several factors have been attributed to influence in this phenomenon. Some of these factors are pathogens, parasites and pesticides. Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian which was founded at first in the Asiatic honeybee (Apis cerana) and in the last years has infected the European honeybee (Apis mellifera). Studies have related de N. ceranae presence in bee hive affected by CCD, postulating it as an important factor in the development of this syndrome. Individually, N. ceranae induce metabolic stress and immunosuppression in honeybees, compromising the social immunity. Social immunity is the group of responses that social organisms have developed against a pathogen or threat, includes mainly behavior changes and secretions to the food produced (royal jelly and honey). The honey is the food for hive’s bee and has antimicrobial activity due to the presence of hydrogen peroxide, generated by glucose oxidase enzyme (GOX), methylglyoxal (in manuka honey) and defensin-1, which contributes to the social immunity of the hive. Defensin-1 is a peptide with antimicrobial activity produced by several cell types in the honey bee, including hypopharyngeal and mandibular glands, from where it is secreted towards honey and royal jelly. In this study, it is proposed that N. ceranae produces an immunosuppression in honey bees, which would result in a lower generation of hydrogen peroxide and the presence of defensin-1 in honey, indicating a compromise of their social immunity. Given the last, the proposed hypothesis is "The honey produced by bees (Apis mellifera) infected with Nosema ceranae contains less antimicrobial peptide defensin-1 and decreased glucose oxidase activity in relation to that produced by non-infected bees." The general objectives of the project are: A) To relate the presence of the antimicrobial peptide defensin-1 and the activity of glucose oxidase in honey with the infection by Nosema ceranae in bees and; B) Have simple analysis methods to establish the presence of defensin-1 in honey based on molecular spectroscopy. For this, the fraction comprised between 3 and 10 kDa of honey samples from the central valley of the O'Higgins region was obtained. This fraction was characterized by fluorescence and multivariate curve resolution (MCR), which allowed to demonstrate the presence of the defensin by detection of tryptophan present in the peptide. In addition, in this fraction the presence of disulfide bridges, associated with the structure of the defensin, whose concentration was correlated with the relative concentration of tryptophan in it, was determined. In the unfractionated honey, GOX activity and antibacterial activity were determined, which were related to the relative content of defensin-1. On the other hand, recombinant defensin-1 was expressed and purified from E. coli which was subjected to the same characterization and/or analysis of the fractionated honey, thus allowing to have a comparison pattern. In parallel, the presence of N. ceranae in the bees of the sampled hives was determined by counting the spores in the microscope and amplifying their genetic material through real-time PCR. When evaluating the set of results, it was observed that the honey produced by bees infected or that had suffered a recent infection with Nosema spp contained a greater amount of defensin-1 and a greater accumulation of hydrogen peroxide in relation to that produced by non-infected bees. Results show that the infection would have induced a higher production of the peptide and GOX being reflected in the honey. These results are the opposite of the proposed hypothesis. However, the honeys that presented this relationship also have a common geographical and floral origin; what could equally be the cause of the observed relationship or that defensin-1 and GOX are constitutively expressed in greater quantity in these colonies, thus presenting a genetic advantage over others in the face of possible infections / Fondecyt

Honey bees are fundamental for maintaining biodiversity in our ecosystems, but a recent decline in honey bee colonies has caused a growing concern for honey bee health worldwide. One component of colony collapses is Nosema (Microsporidia), which is associated with colony collapses in many subtropical regions. However, infection by Nosema is also known to accumulate within the honey bee hive during overwintering in colder climates. In this study, the prevalence of Nosema is compared between four honey bee subspecies during fall and winter and is focused on two hypotheses: 1) infection by Nosema is more prevalent in honey bees during winter and 2) infection by Nosema differs between different honey bee subspecies. Bees were dissected, and their guts were analysed for Nosema spores using a light microscope. Results showed a difference in amount of Nosema infected colonies between winter and fall. Also, results showed a difference between Buckfast bee (A. mellifera hybrid) and Carniolan bee (A. mellifera carnica) in Nosema infected colonies during the fall period. These results indicate that infection by Nosema in cold climates might be more prevalent than previously thought. Additionally, there might be differences in resilience between honey bee subspecies, but infection of Nosema seem to depend less on subspecies than season. More research is needed on Nosema in cold regions to assess the effect of Nosema on honey bees in Sweden and worldwide to prevent future colony collapses of honey bees.

Immunodeficient honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies suffer from broad range of parasites including eukaryotic protozoa. Despite this fact, the eukaryotic parasites are still poorly documented in the Czech Republic. The presence of eukaryotic parasites (Nosema ceranae, Nosema apis, Crithidia mellificae and Apicystis bombi) was observed in different apiaries in the Czech Republic. The samples were taken in 9 apiaries in 53 beehives during the 2014/2015 season. From each beehive, 10 adult of honey bees were taken from the peripheral comb in triplicate. DNA was isolated from every sample of honey bees. The parasites were detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with specific primers. The treatment fall of parasitic mite Varroa destructor was obtained from beekeepers for season of 2014. Crithidia mellificae was detected by 5 types of specific primers (SEF, SER; SSU, SSU rRNA, Cyt b, Tryp cyt b) and positive amplicons were cloned and sequenced. The obtained sequences were compared with GeneBank and showed similarity from 98-100% to sequences of Lotmaria passim (Trypanosomatid). Crithidia mellificae was not detected. L. passim had prevalence of 79,2% and is reported in the Czech Republic for the first time. Primer Tryp-cyt b is recommended for the routine detection of L. passim. Nosema ceranae was...