While studies have indicated the onset of fertility transition in Nigeria as in most Sub- Saharan countries, no systematic attempt has been made to identify the factors responsible for this trend. Existing explanation tends to draw from the demographic transition theory without exploring the value of other key variables. One of these variables is the degree of preference implementation. This study explores the role of fertility preference implementation on the onset of fertility transition in Nigeria. The study estimated the extent to which couples have been able to implement their fertility preferences with a view to better understand the factors that are responsible for the fertility changes in the country. This study was based on the socio-economic and microeconomic frameworks of fertility namely: the Bongaarts et al (1984) version and its Stover’s reformulation (1998) of the proximate determinants of fertility and the Bongaarts (1993) supply-demand framework for the analysis of the determinants of fertility, respectively. The proximate determinant of fertility frameworks holds that all demographic, socioeconomic, cultural, institutional, psychological, health and environmental factors (background variables) operate through the proximate or intermediate variables to affect fertility. The Bongaarts (1993) supply-demand framework posits that fertility (F) as measured by total fertility rate is an outcome of the interaction of supply of births (natural fertility), demand for births (wanted fertility) and degree of fertility preference implementation (an index, which measures the extent to which people have been able to implement their fertility preferences). The degree of preference implementation is in turn dependent on cost of fertility regulation and that of unwanted childbearing. The husbands’ family planning attitude and desired number of children were incorporated into the latter framework to recognize and bring out the crucial roles of the males in eventual fertility outcomes. The 1990, 1999 and 2003 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) data sets for men, women and couples were used. The methodology of the three NDHS is not too different from each other. They are nationally representative cross-sectional survey of women between the ages of 15 and 49 in 1990, 1999 and 2003 and men between 15 and 64 in 1999 and 15-59 in the 2003 survey. Twenty-four focus group discussions were also conducted among the sexes across the country to gain better insight and understanding into the issues examined. Focus group research is based on facilitating an organized discussion with a group of individuals selected because they were believed to be representative of some class. The discussion is used to bring out insights and understandings in ways, which cannot be captured by questionnaire. The focus group discussions (FGD) are also national in scope. Participants were drawn from the Northern, South Eastern and South Western regions of the country. The study population consisted of 8,781; 8,199 and 7,620 women aged 15-49 interviewed during the 1990, 1999 and 2003 NDHS, respectively. In addition, 2,584 men aged 15-64 and 2,346 men aged 15-59 interviewed during the 1999 and 2003 NDHS, respectively were used. One thousand, one hundred and sixty-eight (1,168) couples’ records derived from the 2003 NDHS and 1,280 (constructed) couples’ records for 1999 were also used. A total of eighty-nine (89) men and eighty-five (85) women participated in the twenty-four (24) focus group discussion sessions. To achieve the research objectives, a wide range of analysis was carried out in the study. In the estimation of all means and medians, the Kaplan Meier survival analysis is used. Some other estimations were done using specific formulations developed for the purpose. Thirty-six binary logistic regression models were also fitted to bring out spousal influences on each other’s attitude to family planning and desired number of children. Lastly, the focus group discussion sessions were analysed by themes to give better understanding into the issues examined. Five hypotheses were tested in the study. There was a general decline in the age specific fertility rates (ASFR) between 1990 and 2003 in all the age groups. This is reflected in the total fertility rate (TFR) for the country as a whole, which declined from 6.32 in 1990 to 5.82 in 2003. The national average masks large variations in the fertility levels between subgroups in the country. The women in the North generally have higher number of children than their Southern counterparts. This is particularly marked in the early childbearing years. Fertility levels are also higher among rural residents compared to those in the urban area. Substantial differences equally exist in the fertility levels of women by their level of education with fertility being negatively associated with level of education. A comparison of the past and current fertility also confirms that fertility has been on the decline in the country. Age at first and last births have been declining and the differentials between the two show that the number of years spent in childbearing is decreasing. Non-marital birth was also found to be increasing over time but at a level below six percent and with no identifiable educational or regional pattern. Teenage motherhood is equally declining both nationally and regionally and is relatively high among teenagers from the rural area and those with less than secondary level of education. The proportion of women that progress from one parity to another decreases as parity increases and no socially imposed optimum number of children is observed (although there is a political four-child policy in existence) among the Nigerian women. Apart from age of mother at the birth of child, which has a positive association with median length of birth interval and the surviving status of preceding child (which is understandably shorter if the preceding child is dead), length of birth interval by other characteristics shows no significant variation across sub groups. Age at first marriage remained between 16 and 17 over the years. This is lower for respondents from the rural, the North and for those with less than secondary level of education. For age at first sexual intercourse, it increased over time in the age groups. Respondents from the North and rural area however initiated sexual intercourse earlier and age at first sexual intercourse increases with level of education. Among the proximate determinant indices, the index of postpartum insusceptibility has the greatest inhibiting effect, followed by that of marriage/sexually active, contraception and then sterility. In the Bongaarts model, the indices reduced total fecundity by 12.46 births in the total sample of married women in 1990; 8.90 births in 1999 and 9.45 births in 2003 while the indices jointly reduced potential fertility by 17.69 births in the total sample of sexually active women in 1990; 16.06 births in 1999 and 16.50 births in 2003 in the Stover’s reformulation. The number of children desired marginally increased over time. This could have been affected by the high proportion of non-response especially in the 1990 survey. The desired number of children is positively related to age and number of surviving children while it is negatively related to education. Number of children desired is found to be lower among urban residents and respondents from the Southern part of the country and highest among currently married women. The focus group discussion sessions also show that people have been revising the number of children they are having downward due to ‘supposed’ economic hardship in the country and the need to give quality education, training and care to the children. However, their desire remain high. The extent, to which fertility preference is achieved, is generally high and increasing over the years in the total sample of married women with some variations in the sub groups. It is higher in the urban compared to the rural; increases with level of education, lowest in the North East and highest in the South West. Surprisingly, the extent to which concordant couples achieve their fertility preferences was lower than that of discordant couples. The fitted logistic models showed no evidence of the husbands having an upper hand in the number of children desired by the wives or on their attitude to family planning and vice versa. While the husbands play greater role in fertility decision-making in households, who has the upper hand between the husbands and the wives in actual fertility outcome was not conclusive in this study. Knowledge about family planning methods and their availability is high. The costs of fertility regulation in terms of its social, economic and in particular health components as well as obstacles to the use of fertility regulation methods were highlighted. The psychological, health, social and more frequently the economic costs of unwanted childbearing were also brought out. The responses to questions on pregnancy wantedness was also validated in this study as people generally acknowledged the circumstance of the birth of additional child(ren) as accidental. Two of the five hypotheses proposed were confirmed. One, the hypothesis that ‘the degree of fertility preference implementation is higher in the south than in the North, higher among urban residents compared to the rural residents and increases as the level of education increases’ is supported by the results of the study. Two, that ‘the degree of fertility preference implementation is increasing and playing an increasing (a more positive) role in fertility changes in Nigeria’ is also supported. The study could not confirm that ‘the indices of marriage/sexual activity, postpartum insusceptibility and contraception (in that order) have the most inhibiting effect on fertility in Nigeria.’ The other two hypotheses could not be proven conclusively either. These were that ‘degree of fertility preference implementation is higher among couples with similar desired number of children than among discordant couples’ and ‘the Husbands have more influence on their wives’ family planning attitude and desired number of children than the wives have over their husbands’. These findings have programme and policy implications. For instance, although the reduction in the number of years spent in child bearing is welcome as a result of decline in the number of older women in active childbearing, the increasing entrance of women under the age of eighteen years is worrisome. This could impact negatively on school enrolment and retention as well as on the health of the women since it is recognised that women under the age of eighteen years is one of the four groups of women with higher risk of morbidity and mortality during pregnancy and childbirth. Despite the pertinent findings of this study, a number of study limitations can be identified. This include not identifying people who have achieved their desired fertility and those who have not and conducting in-depth interview with them to gain greater insight into their fertility decision-making, desire and behaviour. This aspect requires further detailed investigation. A number of programme, policy and research recommendations are made based on the findings of this study.

This thesis deals with birth rates from the perspective of women with more children. The first part of the work presents the reasons for a decline in birth rates. In the second part we are examining which groups in the current population do not follow these trends. Subsequently an interview was conducted with eight female believers who each have four or more children. Women were asked how many children did they plan to have and which factors had influenced the number of children they actually have. Additionally, the woman were asked how the reasons that influenced the majority of the population in having a lower number of children affected them. From the interviews, four basic factors have arisen that played a role in the fact that these eight mothers have thirty-five children in total. These factors are: the life circumstances of these woman, their faith in God, their values and the possibility of self-realization. The following ethical chapter reflects on two of these factors.

The subject of diploma thesis is the pension system in the Czech Republic. We warn about the deficit increase in the future and suggest taking the number of children raised into consideration in the pension system construction. Pension system in the Czech Republic is described in detail. The first "pay-as-you-go" pillar represents the main part of the system. It could bring financial problems (if the retirement pension and pension income tax will stay at the same level as now) considering the expected trends in demography. Population projection was calculated using cohort component method (including migration). The threshold for the projection is year 2011, projection is calculated with 100-year horizon. There were also calculated revenues and expenses of the pension system for each projected year. If the expected parameters of the projection will be realized, the deficit of pension system in the hundred year period will reach 9.5 billion Kč (prices 2011). It represents the deficit 95.3 milliard Kč each year in the average. To reduce the deficit it is possible to increase the pension tax paid by productive people. But it could also bring the decline of fertility, because lower income could make people decide to reduce number of children. It would deepen the problems in the pay-as-you-go system. The financial problem of pension system could be solved by taking the number of children raised into consideration of the pension system construction. It would eliminate the situation that it is economically more favourable to be childless during the life. It could also bring the fertility increase. In the diploma thesis the value of the deficit is simulated for the various parameters of pension system and for the various demographic development in the future.

The aim of this study was to examine the relations between women’s perceived stress off the job (dependent variable), responsability for household chores, emotional support, number of children living at home, neuroticism and age (independent variables). Comparisons between the present sample and two independent samples from previous research were made with regard to perceived stress and neuroticism. The sample of this study consisted of 186 women working in the fields of health care and geriatric care. The results showed that perceived stress correlated positively with neuroticism and number of children and negatively with emotional support, though the effectsizes for number of children and emotional support were fairly small. Neuroticism was the strongest predictor for perceived stress. Implemented comparisons showed that the present sample reported significantly higher levels of perceived stress and neuroticism than the two independent samples. Keywords: women, perceived stress off the job, responsability for household chores, emotional support, number of children, neuroticism, age.

<p>The aim of this study was to examine the relations between women’s perceived stress off the job (dependent variable), responsability for household chores, emotional support, number of children living at home, neuroticism and age (independent variables). Comparisons between the present sample and two independent samples from previous research were made with regard to perceived stress and neuroticism. The sample of this study consisted of 186 women working in the fields of health care and geriatric care. The results showed that perceived stress correlated positively with neuroticism and number of children and negatively with emotional support, though the effectsizes for number of children and emotional support were fairly small. Neuroticism was the strongest predictor for perceived stress. Implemented comparisons showed that the present sample reported significantly higher levels of perceived stress and neuroticism than the two independent samples.</p><p>Keywords: women, perceived stress off the job, responsability for household chores, emotional support, number of children, neuroticism, age.</p>

In this study we used the data from Afghanistan Health Survey 2006. For this study, 8278 households were randomly selected in which 8281 women aged 10-49 years were interviewed by survey teams using a structured questionnaire. The information was also collected for all children aged 5 years or less from all these households. The sample includes 7843 (13.8%) children under the age of 5 years old. Literacy of mothers (ability to read), age of mother at marriage, number of children, exposure to mass media (listening to radio or watching TV) were the independent variables and BCG vaccination, initiation of breastfeeding (within first hour of life or after first hour); and use of bed net (to protect a child from Malaria) were dependent variables. Chi square and Odd Ratio test was used to test significance of the associations. Logistic Regression test was used to control for the confounders. In this study we found that those listening to radio at least once a week were more likely to start breastfeeding during the first hour of life. Those watching TV at least once a week were more likely to vaccinate their children for BCG. These associations were significant after controlling for confounders (economic status of the family and distance to health facility). The fact that why the other independent variables did not have association with BCG vaccination, initiation of breastfeeding and use of bed net can be either due to limitation of the study or there are other reasons that require further investigations.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-14T13:16:06Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 743725 bytes, checksum: a7e19d5a7609fb100bb66e1162cdd0a7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-03-14 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / The socialization goals and educational practices used by parents have an important influence on interactions that are established and consequently on child development. The objective of this study is to investigate the Socialization s Goals and Parental Educational Practices in families with one child and families with two or three children. The study included 41 mothers of medium socio-economic status, married or cohabiting, with at least secondary education, with one or two or three children, living in the city of João Pessoa. We applied a semi-structured interview related to Socialization s Goals, a Parental Practices Inventory and a questionnaire for socio-demographic characteristics. The data were treated to compare the results of both groups of mothers and highlighted the importance of educational level of the mother to offspring education provided. The results showed there is no statistically significant difference between the two groups of mothers who have lower average among mothers with one child and two and three children in the instrument of parental practices in social involvement and responsibility. In an interview about socialization goals the difference was indicated by the higher frequency sub-group of only-child mother related to social aspects and responsibilities of parents towards their children. It is emphasized that, despite the literature pointing out that the father is more involved, it is still attributed to the mother most of the responsibility and reference for the children s education. The influences for their children's education are independent of family size and do not occur unilaterally, being influenced by the child s birth order, gender, personality, age, and other characteristics as well as support networks for children care, such as grandparents. Thus the attitudes and educational decisions are made individually for each child, regardless of the number of children. / As metas de socialização e as práticas educativas utilizadas pelos pais têm importante influência nas interações que são estabelecidas e consequentemente no desenvolvimento infantil. O objetivo deste trabalho consistiu em investigar as Metas de Socialização e as Práticas Parentais Educativas em famílias com filho único e famílias com dois a três filhos através do relato materno. Participaram deste estudo 41 mães, de nível sócio-econômico médio, casadas/conviventes com ao menos ensino médio completo, com 1 a 3 filhos, estes entre 4 anos e meio a 7 anos de idade, residentes na cidade de João Pessoa-PB. Foram aplicadas uma entrevista semi-estruturada sobre Metas de Socialização, um Inventário de Práticas Parentais e um Questionário Sócio-demográfico para caracterização das mães. Os dados foram tratados de forma a comparar os resultados dos dois grupos de mães e destacaram a importância do nível educacional da mãe para a educação proporcionada a prole. Os resultados revelaram que não existe diferença significativa estatisticamente entre os dois grupos de mães que apresentam médias menores entre as mães de filho único e dois e três filhos no instrumento de práticas parentais no envolvimento social e de responsabilidade. Na entrevista sobre metas de socialização a diferença foi indicada pela frequência superior em subcategorias no grupo de mães de filho único relacionadas aos aspectos sociais e de responsabilidade dos pais para com os filhos. Enfatiza-se que, apesar da literatura apontar que o pai está mais participativo, ainda é atribuída à mãe a maior parte da responsabilidade e referência para a educação das crianças. As influências para a educação dos filhos independem do tamanho da família e não ocorre de forma unilateral, sendo influenciadas pela ordem de nascimento, gênero, personalidade, idade e características da criança, etc. bem como, das redes de apoio para o cuidado dos filhos, como as avós. Desse modo as atitudes e decisões educacionais são tomadas de forma individual para cada criança, independentemente do número de filhos.

Old age pension scheme system consists of two time periods of different lengths. During the first stage the insured persons contribute financially a certain part of their base of assess into the system. For purposes of this work we can call this sum a percentage of their income. On reaching a certain age the insured people can draw regular amounts of money, called old age pension. Insurance rate should be paid for a longer period of time and in smaller amounts. Old age pension should be, on the other hand, higher and be available for a shorter period. This works tries to find out which of these two sums (in total) is higher: insurance rate of pension.The value studied is the rate of return, which compares the money paid by the state with the insurance money. Actual employees' salaries reflecting the progression of the lifetime income were used in calculations. Concurrently, this work enables to understand the method of calculation of old age pension nominal value for the year 2011 and takes into account the changes within the so called small pension reform.

Even though power and influence of children on family buying behavior is growing little is known about their involvement. Previous studies of family and household consumption often neglect the role of children in decision-making, but nowadays, children are becoming one of the most powerful influencers in family buying behavior. They dominate family buying decision and can influence their parents in many product categories from cars till regular grocery shopping and therefore the question arises, what influences children when requesting products and what strategies they use to make their parents yield to their requests. Thus, this research paper tries to explain how are influence strategies that children use and family complexity related to parents buying behavior of groceries. The primary data have been collected through an electronic questionnaire, which resulted in sample of 164 parents respondents from around the globe. The data were analyzed by using various statistical tools and concluded that (1) aggressive, persuasion, rational and knowledge strategies are positively affecting parents buying behavior, (2) non-traditional family structure has positive impact on buying behavior, (3) older children have more influence power over parents buying behavior and (4) number of children has no significant influence on parents buying behavior.

Fertility patterns in European Union Abstract The main objective of the thesis is to create a typology of fertility in the countries of European Union. The variables entering the analysis are demographic indicators of fertility (total fertility rate, mean age of women at first birth) and opinion poll Eurobarometer 75.4 (ideal number of children, sociodemographic variables). Fertility is analyzed from 1960 until 2014. The main part of the thesis focuses on 2011, when census and opinion poll were conducted. Deeper analysis is performed by using cluster analysis and Poisson regression. The result of the thesis is the typology of fertility based on theories explaining fertility changes and empirical analysis. Keywords: fertility, typology, European Union, ideal number of children, cluster analysis, Poisson regression