Inorganic pesticides including natural chemicals such as arsenic, copper, lead, and sulfur have been used extensively to control pests in agriculture. Lead arsenate (PbHAsO4) was first used in apple orchards in the late 1890's to combat the codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus). The affordable and persistent pesticide was applied in ever increasing amounts for the next half century. The persistence in the environment in addition to the heavy applications during the early 1900's may have led to many of the current and former orchards in this country being contaminated. In this study, soil samples were taken from several apple orchards across the state, ranging from Southwest to Northern Virginia and were analyzed for arsenic and lead. Based on naturally occurring background levels and standards set by other states, two orchards sampled in this study were found to have very high levels of arsenic and lead in the soil, Snead Farm and Mint Spring Recreational Park. Average arsenic levels at Mint Spring Recreational Park and Snead Farm were found to be 65.2 ppm and 107.6 ppm, respectively. Average lead levels were found to be 354.5 ppm and 442.3 ppm, respectively. Based on these results, Virginia needs to look at setting standards for lead and arsenic in soil to determine if cleanup of former agricultural lands will be necessary. / Master of Science

No description available.

A computer program package for use with the southern pine seed orchard Inventory-Monitoring System (IMS) was developed and tested using 1980 and 1981 cone crop data collected from Weyerhaeuser's loblolly pine seed orchard at Magnolia, Arkansas. The Computerized IMS, written in Fortran, is accompanied by a user's guide containing data entry instructions. The IMS package includes one predictive program and two programs designed to interpret actual harvest data and make it available for the computation of predictions for future crops. The predictive program utilizes strobilus survival data from sample trees and clonal estimates for cone analysis-derived variables to compute clonal cone and seed yield predictions. Cone yield predictions calculated by the Computerized IMS for the 1980 and 1981 crops indicated that it has the potential for producing useful production estimates. Investigations of variance within the seed orchard having an impact on IMS predictions centered on clonal, age-class (within-clone), annual, orchard location and with in-crown effects on cone analysis-derived variables, cone efficiency and flowers-per-tree. Analysis of clonal variance indicated that seed potential and germination efficiency were under strong genetic control compared to the other characters. Annual clonal stability was high enough for clonal seed potential and seed efficiency to make useful regression models possible for estimating these variables without complete cone analysis. Clonal cone efficiencies displayed low annual stability, discouraging the use of stratified clones to estimate productivity, since clones could change productivity classes from year to year. Within-crown variation was not well-defined for most variables due to clone-crown sector interaction. However, cones were concentrated in the middle one-third of the crown and empty seed percentages were found to be highest in the north crown quadrant. The study indicated that clone-by-clone monitoring of seed orchard production, while the most expensive option, will produce the most reliable and useful yield predictions. / Ph. D.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2010. / Thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Stellenbosch University. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Most modern deciduous fruit cultivars are self-incompatible, and require polliniser trees to be planted in the orchard to provide the pollen necessary for cross-pollination, fertilization and fruit set. Polliniser trees are either non-commercial cultivars interspersed in the orchard solely to provide pollen, or crosscompatible cultivars inter-planted in the same orchard. 90% of the commercial crops dependent on bee pollination are courtesy of a single species, Apis mellifera. Both polliniser planting pattern and honey bee colony distance are known to influence crop production and crop quality, resulting in a rapid decrease in fruit weight, fruit set and seed number with increasing distance from the polliniser or honeybee colonies. However, the response of different crops and cultivars to polliniser and pollinator proximity on optimal crop yield is not known for deciduous fruit crops in the Western Cape, South Africa. The effect of polliniser position and honeybee colony distance on fruit set and weight was investigated in plums, apples and pears on the Lourensford Estate. The relationship between fruit set and fruit weight was investigated for deciduous fruit cultivars. In addition, fruit weight and seed number was also investigated in apples and pears. Fruit set tended to increase on sides of trees closer to the polliniser but not significantly so, except for apples. This suggests that there is probably better pollination closer to the pollinisers but this does not equate to increased yield. In fact, smaller fruit was produced on the sides of the trees closer to the polliniser for all orchards and significantly so for plum and for ‘Packham’s Triumph’ in Hillside 1. This negative relationship between fruit set and weight may indicate ‘over-set’ beyond the physiological limits of the trees. Fruits closer to the polliniser had significantly more seeds for both pear and apple cultivars indicating sufficient pollination. A significant relationship was found between the seed number in any particular fruit and the weight of the fruit in all the cultivars except ‘Packham’s Triumph’ where the relationship was negative, suggesting that ‘Packham’s Triumph’ set parthenocarpically. Colony distance had no effect on fruit weight, fruit set and on seed number indicating that colonies were adequately distributed and that there was no “pollination depression” in the centre of the orchards at Lourensford. In conclusion, the fact that we did not get a yield gradient with increased distance from the colonies suggested that the orchards at Lourensford Estate were sufficiently pollinated. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Geen opsomming beskikbaar

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Increasing pressure on food production and the concern over maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem services is creating an urgent need to future-proof food production, while maintaining the natural environment for future generations. Within the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) biodiversity hotspot in the Western Cape of South Africa, deciduous fruit is widely grown, contributing significantly to the local economy. To ensure access is maintained to important export markets, this study reviews the current available pest control options with focus on techniques able to preserve the biodiversity of the CFR, while simultaneously providing effective control over arthropod pests in pome fruit. A scenario planning technique is then used to depict potential future scenarios and the options we have in dealing with them. Emphasis here is placed on economically important arthropod species, particularly Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) and codling moth Cydia pomonella (L.). Biological control (biocontrol) is discussed in detail, covering predators, parasitoids and pathogens. Biocontrol is an important, sustainable pest control measure. However, certain risks associated with releasing living organisms into the environment must not be ignored. Monitoring of release programmes is essential. The sterile insect technique (SIT) offers a species-specific approach to controlling pests. However, the technique is research and management intensive. Globally SIT has shown great success, but lack of financial support has limited SIT uptake locally. SIT has shown increased effectiveness as an integrated technique, particularly with parasitoid release and pheromone-based mating disruption. The management of orchards as agroecosystems shows that preservation of natural vegetation and beneficial plant species increases crop resilience, encourages conservation biological control and maintains crop health. The importance of area-wide control is discussed under each section, as a favourable strategy which deals with entire pest populations rather than isolated farm-by-farm approaches. Other techniques covered include pheromone-based mating disruption, attract-and-kill and physical barriers such as sticky tree-bands, which all show integration potential with biologically-based techniques while minimising insecticide application. The usefulness of insecticides as a curative approach is recognised, and ways of preserving insecticide life-spans by limiting insecticide resistance are discussed. Social, economic, political, environmental and technological driving forces are used to develop four realistic future scenarios for pome fruit production in the CFR. The scenarios are based on the extremes of two key uncertainties: development of resistance to chemical insecticides, and changes in legislation regulating insecticide usage. The options we face in dealing with each potential scenario, with the suite of arthropod pest control techniques currently developed, is discussed. It is hypothesised that a best-case scenario, in which environmentally-friendly techniques which support healthy, productive agroecosystems, can be reached. We should carefully assess our options, and begin to shift pest control from a predominantly chemical basis to one in which habitat management and biocontrol form the basis of control, with techniques such as SIT, mating disruption and physical barriers assisting in creating holistic arthropod pest control systems. In light of the uncertainty that the future holds, a scenario planning exercise such as this, can assist in decision making today that will best prepare us to deal with future threats such as climate change and new pest invasions. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Toenemende druk op voedselproduksie en kommer oor die handhawing van biodiversiteit en ekosisteemdienste lei tot „n dringende behoefte om voedselproduksie toekoms-bestand te maak, asook om tegelykertyd die natuurlike omgewing vir toekomstige generasies te bewaar. Binne die Kaap Floristiese Streek (KFS) „biodiversiteitskern‟ in die Wes-Kaap van Suid-Afrika word sagte vrugte algemeen verbou en lewer „n aansienlike bydrae tot die plaaslike ekonomie. Om toegang tot belangrike uitvoermarkte te verseker ondersoek hierdie studie die plaagbeheer opsies tans beskikbaar, met die fokus op tegnieke wat die biodiversiteit van die KFS kan bewaar en tegelykertyd effektiewe beheer oor geleedpotige plae van kernvrugte kan verskaf. „n Scenario-beplannings-tegniek word dan gebruik om moontlike toekomstige scenario‟s en die opsies tot ons beskikking om hulle te hanteer, uit te beeld. Klem word hier geplaas op geleedpotige spesies van ekonomiese belang, veral die Mediterreense vrugtevlieg, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) en die kodlingmot Cydia pomonella (L.). Biologiese-beheer (biobeheer) word in diepte bespreek, en dek predatore, parasiete en patogene. Biobeheer is „n belangrike, volhoubare plaagbeheer-middel; alhoewel sekere risiko‟s verbonde met die vrystelling van lewende organismes in die omgewing nie verontagsaam moet word nie. Dit is noodsaaklik dat vrystellingsprogramme gemoniteer word. Die steriele-insek-tegniek (SIT) bied „n spesies-spesifieke benadering tot die beheer van plae, alhoewel dit navorsings- en bestuursintensief is. SIT het wêreldwyd al groot suksesbehaal, maar „n tekort aan finansiële ondersteuning het die plaaslike toepassing van SIT beperk. SIT het verhoogde effektiwiteit as „n geïntegreerde tegniek vertoon, veral met die verlies van parasiete en feromoon gebaseerde parings-ontwrigting. Die bestuur van boorde as agro-ekosisteme wys dat die bewaring van natuurlike plantegroei en voordelige plant spesies oes-herstelvermoë verhoog, bewaring-biologiese-beheer aanmoedig en oes-welstand handhaaf. Die belang van streekswye beheer word bespreek onder elke afdeling as „n gunstige strategie wat te doen het met algehele plaagbevolkings, eerder as afsonderlike plaas-tot-plaas benaderings. Ander tegnieke wat gedek word sluit in feromoon gebaseerde parings-ontwrigting, lok-en-doodmaak en fisiese versperrings soos taai boom-bande, wat alles integrasie-potensiaal wys met biologies gebaseerde tegnieke en tegelykertyd insekdoder aanwending verminder. Die nuttigheid van insekdoders as „n herstel benadering word erken en maniere om die leffektiwiteit van insekdoders te behou deur insekdoder-weerstand te beperk, word bespreek. Sosiaal-, ekonomies-, polities-, omgewings- en tegnologies-gedrewe kragte word gebruik om vier realistiese toekomstige scenario‟s vir kernvrug-produksie in die KFS te ontwikkel. Die scenario‟s is baseer op die ekstreme van twee belangrike onsekerhede: ontwikkeling van weerstand teen chemiese insekdoders, en veranderinge in wetgewing wat die gebruik van insekdoders reguleer. Die opsies wat ons in die gesig staar om elke potensiële scenario te hanteer met die verskeidenheid van geleedpotige plaagbeheer-tegnieke tans ontwikkel is, word bespreek. Dit word veronderstel dat „n beste scenario, waar omgewings-vriendelike tegnieke wat gesonde, produktiewe agro-ekosisteme onderhou, bereik kan word. Ons moet ons opsies versigtig assesseer, en begin om plaagbeheer vanaf „n oorwegend chemiese basis te skuif na een waar habitat-bestuur en biobeheer die basis van beheer vorm, en waar tegnieke soos SIT, parings-ontwrigting en fisiese versperrings help om holistiese geleedpotige-plaagbeheer sisteme te vorm. In die lig van die onsekerheid wat die toekoms inhou, kan „n scenario-beplannings oefening soos hierdie besluitneming vandag aanhelp wat ons die beste sal voorberei vir die hantering van toekomstige bedreigings soos klimaats-verandering en nuwe en vreemde plaag-indringing.

12 pp.

Soil degradation is a complex process which may occur anywhere and at any time. It directly affects the physical, chemical and biological processes within the soil profile. Soil degradation can either be as a result of natural hazards or due to manmade actions, such as mismanagement on cropping patterns, soil preparation and cultivation practices. Regardless of how it is caused, soil degradation has strong negative effects on plant and soil productivity. Soil degradation can accelerate a series of processes such as erosion, compaction, loss of organic matter, loss of whole soil biota, surface sealing and contamination. This thesis presents the assessment of soil properties to improve our understanding of soil degradation on raised-bed orchards in the Vietnamese Mekong delta (MD). Measurements were made on 10 citrus plantations which had been established during a range of years from 1970 to 1998 at Hau Giang province. Soil sampling was made in the dry season of 2010 at two soil depths for each raised-bed to determine soil chemical and physical properties. The soil penetration resistance (PR) was periodically measured once a week together with soil sampling for moisture measurements during a period of 5 months. Analysis indicated the pH value of the soil was tending to decrease, nutrient imbalance and deficiency was developing, and the soil structure was deteriorating during the age since the raised-beds were originally constructed. Preventive and restorative measures need to be considered for restoring and retaining the quality of the soil and the ground water. These measures should consist of (1) neutralizing of excess acidity, (2) balancing of nutrients, (3) maintaining of soil organic matter, and (4) application of appropriate irrigation schedules. / Suy thoái đất là một tiến trình phức tạp xuất hiện ở mọi nơi, mọi lúc làm tác động trực tiếpđến các quá trình lý, hóa và sinh học trong phẫu diện đất. Nó có thể là kết quả của các hoạtđộng do tự nhiên hoặc do con người như sử dụng sai hoặc thực hành quản lý đất đai bất hợplý. Cho dù nguyên nhân thế nào chăng nữa, suy thoái đất cũng gây ra các ảnh hưởng bất lợinặng nề lên cây trồng và sức sản suất của đất. Suy thoái đất có thể thúc đẩy hàng loạt cácquá trình như là xói mòn, nén dẽ, mất vật liệu hữu cơ và sinh vật đất, đóng váng bề mặt vàô nhiễm. Luận văn này trình bày sự đánh giá về các đặc tính của đất để mở mang sự hiểubiết về suy thoái đất trên các vườn cây ăn trái ở đồng bằng sông Cửu Long. Thí nghiệmthực hiện trên 10 vườn cam quít với khoảng thời gian thành lập vườn từ 1970 đến 1998 tạitỉnh Hậu Giang. Mẫu đất được lấy vào mùa khô năm 2010 ở hai độ sâu cho mỗi vườn đểphân tích các chỉ tiêu lý hóa đất. Sức kháng xuyên của đất được đo định kỳ mỗi tuần kếthợp với lấy mẫu để xác định ẩm độ đất trong suốt khoảng thời gian 5 tháng. Kết quả phântích cho thấy pH đất có khuynh hướng giảm, sự thiếu và mất cân bằng dinh dưỡng đất ngàycàng lộ rõ, và cấu trúc đất đang xấu đi theo độ tuổi của vườn. Các biện pháp phòng ngừa vàphục hồi cần được quan tâm đối với việc phục hồi và duy trì chất lượng của đất và nướcngầm. Các biện pháp nên bao gồm (1) trung hòa độ chua đất, (2) cân bằng dinh dưỡng, (3)duy trì vật liệu hữu cơ trong đất, và (4) áp dụng chế độ tưới thích hợp. / <p>QC 20130909</p>

Nos últimos anos, novas estratégias têm sido desenvolvidas na obtenção de incrementos da produtividade agrícola associados à manutenção da qualidade do solo. No entanto, as terras agrícolas vêm perdendo a sua qualidade física decorrente dos processos de compactação a que estão sendo expostas. A compactação do solo, destaca-se a nível mundial como um dos principais responsáveis pela redução da produtividade das culturas. Pesquisas têm descrito o processo de compressão de solos formados sob a influência de clima temperado, bem como modelos que relacionam esse processo com os atributos intrínsecos dos solos. A informação disponível também demonstra que o processo de compactação depende do sistema de manejo de solo adotado. Entretanto, existe a necessidade de desenvolver estudos que permitam uma melhor compreensão do processo de compactação de solos desenvolvidos sob clima tropical. Nesse sentido, este trabalho testou a hipótese de que o processo de compactação e os indicadores derivados da curva de compressão de solos tropicais são influenciados diferenciadamente pelo sistema de manejo aplicado, devido às alterações que o mesmo induz nas propriedades físicas do solo. O objetivo geral deste estudo foi avaliar quantitativamente o processo de compactação e os indicadores “índice de compressão” e “pressão de preconsolidação” de solos submetidos a diferentes intensidades de tráfego em um pomar de laranja e diferentes intensidades de pisoteio animal em uma pastagem irrigada e obter, se possível, relações que permitam estimar esses indicadores a partir de propriedades do solo facilmente mensuráveis. Os objetivos específicos foram: i) determinar a influência de diferentes intensidades de tráfego no processo de compactação e nos parâmetros índice de compressão e pressão de preconsolidação de um Latossolo Vermelho Amarelo sob pomar de laranja e, a partir desses indicadores, avaliar a heterogeneidade da compactação; ii) avaliar a influência do pisoteio animal na compressibilidade de um Argissolo Vermelho submetido aos sistemas de pastejo rotacionado intensivo: irrigado e não irrigado; e iii) obter funções que permitam estimar a capacidade de suporte de carga do solo a partir de uma propriedade facilmente mensurável e de extrema importância para o crescimento de plantas: a resistência do solo à penetração. Os resultados referentes ao primeiro objetivo indicaram que o processo de compactação foi influenciado pela intensidade de tráfego, visto que os valores de pressão de preconsolidação diferiram nas posições de amostragem entre rodado, rodado e projeção da copa em relação à linha de cultivo. A pressão de preconsolidação resultou ser um indicador mais sensível que o índice de compressão na avaliação da heterogeneidade da compactação em áreas citrícolas. Os resultados obtidos no segundo objetivo revelaram diferenças na compressibilidade do solo, refletindo-se nas curvas de compressão uniaxial dos sistemas de pastejo rotacionado intensivo irrigado e não irrigado. Os sucessivos ciclos de pastejo induziram aumento da pressão de preconsolidação do solo nos dois sistemas de pastejo, sendo significativamente superior no sistema de pastejo rotacionado intensivo irrigado. No que se refere ao terceiro objetivo, foi determinada uma relação significativa, positiva e linear entre a pressão de preconsolidação e a resistência do solo à penetração medida no laboratório e no campo. Estes resultados possibilitam afirmar que a capacidade de suporte de carga do solo pode ser estimada a partir de uma propriedade física facilmente mensurável como a resistência do solo à penetração avaliada no campo. / In the last years new strategies have been developed to obtain increment of the agricultural productivity maintaining the soil quality. However, the agricultural lands quality is decreasing as a consequence of the soil compaction process. Soil compaction is considered as one of the main factors responsible for the reduction of the cultures productivity. Researches related to soils formed under the influence of temperate climate have described the process of soil compression, and developed models that relate this process with the soil intrinsic attributes. Studies have also shown that the soil compression process depends on the soil management practices. However, it is still necessary to develop studies that allow a better understanding the compaction process of soils developed under tropical climate. In this context, this research tested the hypothesis that the soil compaction process is influenced differently by the management practices, due to the alterations that induce on the soil physical properties. The general objective of this study was to evaluate quantitatively the compaction process, and the indicators “compression index” and “preconsolidation pressure” of soils submitted to different traffic intensities in an orchard, and different animal trampling intensities in an irrigated short duration grazing system, and to obtain relationships that allow to estimate these indicators using easily measurable soil attributes. The specific objectives were: i) to determinate the influence of different traffic intensities in the soil compaction process, and in the compression index and preconsolidation pressure of an Haplustox under an orange orchard, and to use these indicators to evaluate the soil compaction heterogeneity; ii) to evaluate the influence of the animal trampling on the soil compressibility of an Hapludalf submitted to two rotation short-duration grazing systems: not irrigated and irrigated; and iii) to obtain functions that allow to estimate the load support capacity using an easily measurable and very important soil property for plant growth; i.e. the soil resistance to penetration. The results related to the first objective indicated that the compaction process was influenced by the traffic intensity, since that the preconsolidation pressure values were different between the sampling positions; i.e., between wheel track, wheel track, canopy projection, and row. The preconsolidation pressure demonstrated to be a more sensitive indicator than the compression index in the evaluation of the soil compaction heterogeneity in an orange orchards. The results related to the second objective have indicated differences in the soil compressibility, which in turn were expressed in the soil compression curves of the irrigated and not irrigated rotation short-duration grazing systems. The successive grazing cycles have induced increases of the soil preconsolidation pressure values of the two grazing systems, being significantly greater in the irrigated rotation short-duration grazing system. The results related to the third objective have demonstrated the existence of a significant, positive and linear relationship between the preconsolidation pressure values and the soil mechanical resistance that were measured in the laboratory and in the field. These results make possible to state that the soil load support capacity can be estimated using an easily measurable soil property; i.e. the soil resistance to penetration.

Nos últimos anos, novas estratégias têm sido desenvolvidas na obtenção de incrementos da produtividade agrícola associados à manutenção da qualidade do solo. No entanto, as terras agrícolas vêm perdendo a sua qualidade física decorrente dos processos de compactação a que estão sendo expostas. A compactação do solo, destaca-se a nível mundial como um dos principais responsáveis pela redução da produtividade das culturas. Pesquisas têm descrito o processo de compressão de solos formados sob a influência de clima temperado, bem como modelos que relacionam esse processo com os atributos intrínsecos dos solos. A informação disponível também demonstra que o processo de compactação depende do sistema de manejo de solo adotado. Entretanto, existe a necessidade de desenvolver estudos que permitam uma melhor compreensão do processo de compactação de solos desenvolvidos sob clima tropical. Nesse sentido, este trabalho testou a hipótese de que o processo de compactação e os indicadores derivados da curva de compressão de solos tropicais são influenciados diferenciadamente pelo sistema de manejo aplicado, devido às alterações que o mesmo induz nas propriedades físicas do solo. O objetivo geral deste estudo foi avaliar quantitativamente o processo de compactação e os indicadores "índice de compressão" e "pressão de preconsolidação" de solos submetidos a diferentes intensidades de tráfego em um pomar de laranja e diferentes intensidades de pisoteio animal em uma pastagem irrigada e obter, se possível, relações que permitam estimar esses indicadores a partir de propriedades do solo facilmente mensuráveis. Os objetivos específicos foram: i) determinar a influência de diferentes intensidades de tráfego no processo de compactação e nos parâmetros índice de compressão e pressão de preconsolidação de um Latossolo Vermelho Amarelo sob pomar de laranja e, a partir desses indicadores, avaliar a heterogeneidade da compactação; ii) avaliar a influência do pisoteio animal na compressibilidade de um Argissolo Vermelho submetido aos sistemas de pastejo rotacionado intensivo: irrigado e não irrigado; e iii) obter funções que permitam estimar a capacidade de suporte de carga do solo a partir de uma propriedade facilmente mensurável e de extrema importância para o crescimento de plantas: a resistência do solo à penetração. Os resultados referentes ao primeiro objetivo indicaram que o processo de compactação foi influenciado pela intensidade de tráfego, visto que os valores de pressão de preconsolidação diferiram nas posições de amostragem entre rodado, rodado e projeção da copa em relação à linha de cultivo. A pressão de preconsolidação resultou ser um indicador mais sensível que o índice de compressão na avaliação da heterogeneidade da compactação em áreas citrícolas. Os resultados obtidos no segundo objetivo revelaram diferenças na compressibilidade do solo, refletindo-se nas curvas de compressão uniaxial dos sistemas de pastejo rotacionado intensivo irrigado e não irrigado. Os sucessivos ciclos de pastejo induziram aumento da pressão de preconsolidação do solo nos dois sistemas de pastejo, sendo significativamente superior no sistema de pastejo rotacionado intensivo irrigado. No que se refere ao terceiro objetivo, foi determinada uma relação significativa, positiva e linear entre a pressão de preconsolidação e a resistência do solo à penetração medida no laboratório e no campo. Estes resultados possibilitam afirmar que a capacidade de suporte de carga do solo pode ser estimada a partir de uma propriedade física facilmente mensurável como a resistência do solo à penetração avaliada no campo. / In the last years new strategies have been developed to obtain increment of the agricultural productivity maintaining the soil quality. However, the agricultural lands quality is decreasing as a consequence of the soil compaction process. Soil compaction is considered as one of the main factors responsible for the reduction of the cultures productivity. Researches related to soils formed under the influence of temperate climate have described the process of soil compression, and developed models that relate this process with the soil intrinsic attributes. Studies have also shown that the soil compression process depends on the soil management practices. However, it is still necessary to develop studies that allow a better understanding the compaction process of soils developed under tropical climate. In this context, this research tested the hypothesis that the soil compaction process is influenced differently by the management practices, due to the alterations that induce on the soil physical properties. The general objective of this study was to evaluate quantitatively the compaction process, and the indicators "compression index" and "preconsolidation pressure" of soils submitted to different traffic intensities in an orchard, and different animal trampling intensities in an irrigated short duration grazing system, and to obtain relationships that allow to estimate these indicators using easily measurable soil attributes. The specific objectives were: i) to determinate the influence of different traffic intensities in the soil compaction process, and in the compression index and preconsolidation pressure of an Haplustox under an orange orchard, and to use these indicators to evaluate the soil compaction heterogeneity; ii) to evaluate the influence of the animal trampling on the soil compressibility of an Hapludalf submitted to two rotation short-duration grazing systems: not irrigated and irrigated; and iii) to obtain functions that allow to estimate the load support capacity using an easily measurable and very important soil property for plant growth; i.e. the soil resistance to penetration. The results related to the first objective indicated that the compaction process was influenced by the traffic intensity, since that the preconsolidation pressure values were different between the sampling positions; i.e., between wheel track, wheel track, canopy projection, and row. The preconsolidation pressure demonstrated to be a more sensitive indicator than the compression index in the evaluation of the soil compaction heterogeneity in an orange orchards. The results related to the second objective have indicated differences in the soil compressibility, which in turn were expressed in the soil compression curves of the irrigated and not irrigated rotation short-duration grazing systems. The successive grazing cycles have induced increases of the soil preconsolidation pressure values of the two grazing systems, being significantly greater in the irrigated rotation short-duration grazing system. The results related to the third objective have demonstrated the existence of a significant, positive and linear relationship between the preconsolidation pressure values and the soil mechanical resistance that were measured in the laboratory and in the field. These results make possible to state that the soil load support capacity can be estimated using an easily measurable soil property; i.e. the soil resistance to penetration.

Diversionary feeding, artificial feeding designed to divert animals away from areas where they might cause property damage, was tested for efficacy in reducing fruit orchard browsing by big game animals during two consecutive winters in Utah. Strategically placed attractive feedstuffs lured deer to feed stations and reduced fruit-bud browsing (1st year, P< 0.07; 2nd year, P < 0.01). Blossom and apple numbers were greater (P < O. 05) on trees in the feed (treatment) orchard than in the no feed (control) orchard in each year. However, higher (P < 0.05) apple production on trees where browsing was excluded in the treatment orchards compared to the control orchards indicated that intercept feeding did not increase crop production. Tree periodicity and other factors affecting apple production masked the effect of diversionary feeding on crop yield. Two independent browsing damage assessment methods, a paired-tree technique and a harvest-inflation technique, predicted that the ratio of apples lost per browsed bud was 0.158 and 0.082, respectively. However, the values of the ratio varied widely with each method of estimation. Browsing damage differed (P < o. 001) according to branch position (below 1 m and distal, above 1 m and distal, and above 1 m and proximal to the tree trunk). A less intensive count of buds and browsed buds reliably predicted average browsing damage in the orchard (determined by counting all browsing zone buds on 5% of the orchard trees), when these branch classes were used. An economic analysis of this feeding program indicated that, at current prices, the value of the increased crop in the study orchards did warrant the cost of feeding associated with them (benefit/cost= 9.20 and 32.89). Deer-proof fencing, although expensive to install, is a more cost-efficient (benefit/cost= 129.28 and 121.11) method of preventing browsing damage in the orchards I studied.