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Magister Commercii - MCom / Numerous studies have evaluated occupational stress and job satisfaction of teachers in South Africa (Jackson & Rothmann, 2006; Olivier & Venter, 2003; Steyn & Kamper, 2006; Rothmann & Coetzee, 2006; Schulze & Steyn, 2007; Van Tonder & Williams, 2009). Teachers in the Western Cape, like their counterparts in the rest of the country, face issues of transformation and uncertainty in the environment (Muller, 2008). In addition to stress which arise from the work itself, studies have indicated that lower job satisfaction leads to high staff turnover and less new entries into the profession (Steyn & Kamper, 2006).Stress causes both physiological and psychological damage (McKenna, 2006). Stress can drive individual performance but severe stress lowers coping resources of staff and reduces work performance and overall job satisfaction (Stranks, 2006). Kauer (2011) showed that when teachers are dissatisfied with their work they are more likely to experience occupational stress. Staff who are frustrated in their work or have unsatisfied needs experience increased tension leading to lower work motivation (Robbins & DeCenzo, 2007). If stress levels are known it may be isolated and coping mechanisms may be developed to motivate teachers and create a healthy work environment (Arnold, 2005). It has been found that job stress and the lack of job satisfaction are associated with physical illness amongst teachers (Peltzer, 2009). Strategies to reduce occupational stress, techniques to build resistance to it and methods to alter the appraisal of workplace stressors may serve to enhance the job satisfaction of teachers. It has been found that occupational stress in teaching is of severe proportions (Zurlo, Pes & Cooper, 2007) and that satisfaction in teaching is determined by the extent to which teachers are satisfied with certain job satisfaction determinants within their work environment (Andersen, 2011, Olulube, 2006, Weiqi, 2006, Drukpa, 2010). Monyatsi (2012), Yahaya and Husain (2011), Hanif, Tariq and Nadeem (2011), Klassen and Chiu (2010), Kauts and Saroj (2010) and Ngimbudzi (2009) found that biographical variables such as gender and tenure impact on the levels of job satisfaction reported by teachers.The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction of teachers in the North Metropole district in the Western Cape, to explore the factors that may contribute to these respective variables and to recommend ways to improve and enhance the delivery of quality education in the Western Cape. A non-probability sampling method in the form of convenience sampling was used to collect the sample. The sample comprised of 118 participants who were from seven schools in a particular geographically defined area within the North Metrolole district of the Western Cape. Primary data was collected by means of a self-developed biographical questionnaire. The Occupational Stress Scale was administered to measure occupational stress and the Job Satisfaction Survey was used to measure job satisfaction in teachers. Both instruments have been proven reliable and valid. The data was analyzed in terms of descriptive statistics (namely the mean, standard deviation, frequencies and percentages) as well as inferential statistics (namely the Pearson Product Moment, and the T-Test).

Stress can lead to poor health and loss of productivity among employees across occupations. Stress does not only affect individuals but also organizations by causing work absence and staff turnover. Academics in Malaysian public universities are no exception. Due to the rapid developments in tertiary education, academics in Malaysian public universities are believed to be experiencing increased job demands that potentially lead to increased stress. This study was carried out to examine: i) the direct effect of role stressors (i.e. role overload, role ambiguity and role conflict) on strain; ii) the direct effect of strain on the outcomes of strain (i.e. cynicism, professional efficacy, and organizational commitment); iii) the moderation effects of organizational support, peer support, and self-efficacy on the relationships between role stressors and strain; iv) the mediation effect of strain on the relationship between role stressors and strain; and v) the mediation effect of outcomes of strain (i.e. cynicism, professional efficacy, and organizational commitment) on the relationship between strain and intention to leave among those academics. This study used a non-experimental two-wave panel design. Eleven of the 12 study variables were measured using pre-existing scales except for self-efficacy, iii which was measured by items specially developed for this study. A longitudinal survey with a six-month time interval yielded 357 respondents (academics) at time 1 and 210 respondents at time 2. Data were analyzed using multiple regression, hierarchical regression, and structural equation modeling (SEM) to test for direct effects, moderation effects and mediation effects respectively. The findings of this study indicate that academics who experienced increased levels of role stressors were more likely to have increased levels of strain. Subsequently, the strained academics were more likely to show higher levels of cynicism and lower levels of professional efficacy and organizational commitment. The predicted moderators (i.e organizational support, peer support, and self-efficacy) had no significant influence on the relationships between role stressors and strain. Mediation analyses consisted of two parts. In the first part, I found that strain strongly mediated the relationship between role ambiguity and outcomes of strain (i.e. cynicism, professional efficacy, and organizational commitment). In the subsequent mediation analysis, I found that cynicism and organizational commitment fully mediated the relationship between strain and intention to leave, but not professional efficacy.

The maladaptive effects of work-related strain constitute an ongoing and growing problem for many workers in the modern workplace. Contemporary understanding of the physiology of brain arousal processes suggests a consistent balance between brain arousal and recovery over the 24-hour work/rest cycle is crucial for maintaining an adaptative response to work strain. Broadly, intense brain arousal tends to occur at work, whilst its recovery occurs in non-work time, usually at home. This thesis describes the development and validation of a new self-report measure of work-related strain, which incorporates a new and unique measurement of recovery from work strain between successive work periods. This instrument has facilitated several studies of recovery from work-related stress/fatigue, which are reported in the form of papers published, in press or in review with peer-reviewed journals. In particular, it is evident that the type and frequency of non-work time behaviour may be significant in determining the level of recovery from acute work strain. This, in turn, mediates the quality of sleep subsequently achieved, and these combine synergistically to determine overall level of recovery that is achieved between work periods. Consistent with the known physiology of brain arousal and recovery, which is described, non-work time behaviours, which mediate adequate recovery from work strain consistently, may represent the difference between long-term adaptative and maladaptive outcomes of work strain exposure. This suggests an area for work-stress intervention hitherto underestimated in fatigue/stress research. It is argued to be of significance for workers in high stress occupations, since non-work time behaviour is potentially more completely within their discretionary power, than the stress/fatigue levels to which they may be regularly exposed through the inherent nature of their work.

The purpose of this study was to identify and assess the stressors and coping mechanisms related to job performance as perceived by directors of adult literacy education programs in Texas. This research also attempted to determine whether there were relationships between: specific demographic variables and job related stressors; and those same demographic variables and coping mechanisms of adult literacy education program administrators in Texas. A survey instrument was sent to all adult literacy education program directors in Texas in June, 2002. Demographic information, as well as information regarding types of stressors, and coping strategies used by those program directors was collected and analyzed. Major findings for the study indicated: 1. A majority of adult literacy education program directors in Texas experienced a significant level of occupational stress and a high overall general stress level. 2. The top stressors identified by the program directors were: Data Collection/Analysis, Statewide Accountability System, Development/ Maintenance of School Budget, Funding Related Issues, Student Achievement, Technology Related Issues, Administration of Programs for Special Students, Selection of Faculty and Staff, Dealing with Unsatisfactory Performance by Professional Staff, Dismissal of a Teacher or Staff Member.3. The major stress-coping mechanisms employed by the program directors were Planning ahead for stressful events and Communication with significant others or peers. 4. Program directors with greater adult education experience have a lower level of occupational stress compared to less experienced program directors. Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made: 1.To address the sources of stress related to data collection, statewide accountability, and program budgets, training should be made available for administrators to improve their understanding and competencies to handle these demands. 2. Implementation of a system or network in which program directors could share problems, insights, and help one another address problems similar to what they may encounter in their jobs would strengthen the whole adult literacy education system in Texas. 3. Communication and leadership in long range planning is necessary from the state office to assist program directors in planning ahead for stressful events.

The purpose of this study was to identify and assess the stressors and coping mechanisms related to job performance as perceived by directors of adult literacy education programs in Texas. This research also attempted to determine whether there were relationships between: specific demographic variables and job related stressors; and those same demographic variables and coping mechanisms of adult literacy education program administrators in Texas. A survey instrument was sent to all adult literacy education program directors in Texas in June, 2002. Demographic information, as well as information regarding types of stressors, and coping strategies used by those program directors was collected and analyzed. Major findings for the study indicated: 1. A majority of adult literacy education program directors in Texas experienced a significant level of occupational stress and a high overall general stress level. 2. The top stressors identified by the program directors were: Data Collection/Analysis, Statewide Accountability System, Development/ Maintenance of School Budget, Funding Related Issues, Student Achievement, Technology Related Issues, Administration of Programs for Special Students, Selection of Faculty and Staff, Dealing with Unsatisfactory Performance by Professional Staff, Dismissal of a Teacher or Staff Member.3. The major stress-coping mechanisms employed by the program directors were Planning ahead for stressful events and Communication with significant others or peers. 4. Program directors with greater adult education experience have a lower level of occupational stress compared to less experienced program directors. Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made: 1.To address the sources of stress related to data collection, statewide accountability, and program budgets, training should be made available for administrators to improve their understanding and competencies to handle these demands. 2. Implementation of a system or network in which program directors could share problems, insights, and help one another address problems similar to what they may encounter in their jobs would strengthen the whole adult literacy education system in Texas. 3. Communication and leadership in long range planning is necessary from the state office to assist program directors in planning ahead for stressful events.

Occupational stress of nurses has been widely researched, for example in specific health care units - intensive care, specific conditions - cancer. Personal characteristics like emotional involvement and depersonalisation of patients are also suggested as stressors for nurses. In South Africa the Department of Health has made a number of changes since 1994. One of the changes involved the restructuring of the different departments to unify the fragmented health services. No comparison study was found for professional and enrolled nurses. The objectives of this study were to determine the construct validity and internal consistency of the Nursing Stress Indicator (NSI) and to identify differences between occupational stressors of professional and enrolled nurses. A cross-sectional survey design was used. An random sample of professional nurses (N = 980) and enrolled (N = 800) nurses of seven of the nine provinces of South Africa were used. The NSI was developed as measuring instrument and administrated together with a biographical questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. Five internally consistent factors were extracted. The first factor was labelled Stress: Patient Care. It relates to stress because of the care nursing staff provide to patients. The second factor was labelled Stress: Job Demands, and refer to the demands associated with the work of the nurse. The third factor indicated a lack of support in the organisation as well as from supervisors and colleagues, and was labelled Stress: Lack of Support. The fourth factor was labelled Stress: Staff Issues, because it included item loadings on things like shortage of staff, and fellow workers not doing their job. The fifth factor contains items concerning working hours, especially overtime, and was labelled Stress: Overtime. The results indicated that a difference in stress levels exists between professional and enrolled nurses. Professional nurses' severity for the different stressors are higher on all five the extracted factors than those of the enrolled nurses. The sources of occupational stress for professional and enrolled nurses were almost the same. One source of stress for professional nurses that the enrolled nurses did not experience is management of staff. Professional nurses (compared with enrolled nurses) obtained practically significant higher scores on two stressors, namely stress because of making a mistake when treating a patient and stress because of disagreement with medical practitioners or colleagues concerning the treatment of a patient. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Occupational stress of nurses has been widely researched, for example in specific health care units - intensive care, specific conditions - cancer. Personal characteristics like emotional involvement and depersonalisation of patients are also suggested as stressors for nurses. In South Africa the Department of Health has made a number of changes since 1994. One of the changes involved the restructuring of the different departments to unify the fragmented health services. No comparison study was found for professional and enrolled nurses. The objectives of this study were to determine the construct validity and internal consistency of the Nursing Stress Indicator (NSI) and to identify differences between occupational stressors of professional and enrolled nurses. A cross-sectional survey design was used. An random sample of professional nurses (N = 980) and enrolled (N = 800) nurses of seven of the nine provinces of South Africa were used. The NSI was developed as measuring instrument and administrated together with a biographical questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. Five internally consistent factors were extracted. The first factor was labelled Stress: Patient Care. It relates to stress because of the care nursing staff provide to patients. The second factor was labelled Stress: Job Demands, and refer to the demands associated with the work of the nurse. The third factor indicated a lack of support in the organisation as well as from supervisors and colleagues, and was labelled Stress: Lack of Support. The fourth factor was labelled Stress: Staff Issues, because it included item loadings on things like shortage of staff, and fellow workers not doing their job. The fifth factor contains items concerning working hours, especially overtime, and was labelled Stress: Overtime. The results indicated that a difference in stress levels exists between professional and enrolled nurses. Professional nurses' severity for the different stressors are higher on all five the extracted factors than those of the enrolled nurses. The sources of occupational stress for professional and enrolled nurses were almost the same. One source of stress for professional nurses that the enrolled nurses did not experience is management of staff. Professional nurses (compared with enrolled nurses) obtained practically significant higher scores on two stressors, namely stress because of making a mistake when treating a patient and stress because of disagreement with medical practitioners or colleagues concerning the treatment of a patient. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Background: The nursing profession involves meetings and situations which can be stressful. The work environment can cause additional stress in the form of time pressure, lack of support from colleagues, management or disgruntled family members and patients. This places the nurse in a position that requires a sharpened ability to handle stress. It can become overwhelming and unmanageable and cause a serious threat to the nurse's health and wellbeing. To handle stress the nurses uses different coping strategies. Aim: The aim of the review was to gain a better understanding of how nurses deal with occupational stress. Method: A systematic literature overview study based on eleven articles, including both qualitative and quantitative studies. Results: Nurses deal with stress in different ways based on their own resources. The results were divided in to seven themes: Seeking social support for emotional expression, Planning and problem solving to reduce stress, Setting boundaries to alleviate stress, Create time and space for recovery, Create time for reflection and guidance, Manage what cannot be affected and Creating distance in order to gain perspective. Conclusion: Perceived stress differs wide between nurses. A great responsibility therefore rests on the nurse herself to learn to manage her stress. The employer can create supportive conditions but the nurse must learn to master their own stress.