Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 1979. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Economics.

No description available.

Vocational education and training (VET) is one of the key interventions targeting youth unemployment in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Its success in promoting better livelihoods and a more robust economy depends on both the availability and affordability of quality curricula and programs and the pathways leading to the labor market thereafter. Previous research on occupational sex segregation (OSS) has suggested that men and women exhibit different education attainment and confront discrete work opportunities due to social expectations governing women's roles within the home and outside of it. Around the world women continue to be economically disadvantaged and limited in their agency to choose decent work, specifically in male-dominated domains, such as construction and certain manufacturing jobs. This study sought to understand to what extent this was true for women who were trained and working in construction and manufacturing in Namibia. My findings confirm that norms governing ideas of what is masculine and feminine contribute to the channeling of women into professions perceived broadly to be socially appropriate for them in that developing nation. Discriminatory hiring practices and workplace treatment shed further light on why Namibian women may be underrepresented in these domains. The experiences of this study's participants did not necessarily align with past research findings regarding the burden of child bearing and rearing, as family members afforded many of those I interviewed the flexibility to work by helping care for their children. A number of the interviewees also expressed a preference for working with men, challenging the oft-cited development narrative that women ally themselves with other women and tend to view themselves in opposition to men. By providing context-specific information on some of the factors contributing to occupational segregation in Namibia, this study adds to the existing development and feminist literature related to the interplay between the productive and reproductive spheres of women's lives as well as their options and choices concerning each. / Master of Public and International Affairs / Vocational education and training (VET) is one of the key interventions targeting youth unemployment in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Its success in promoting better livelihoods and a more robust economy depends on both the availability and affordability of quality curricula and programs and the pathways leading to the labor market thereafter. Previous research on occupational sex segregation (OSS) has suggested that men and women exhibit different education attainment and confront discrete work opportunities due to social expectations governing women’s roles within the home and outside of it. Around the world women continue to be economically disadvantaged and limited in their agency to choose decent work, specifically in male-dominated domains, such as construction and certain manufacturing jobs. This study sought to understand to what extent this was true for women who were trained and working in construction and manufacturing in Namibia. My findings confirm that norms governing ideas of what is masculine and feminine contribute to the channeling of men and women into different occupations. Discriminatory hiring practices and workplace treatment also shed further light on why Namibian women may be underrepresented in these domains. Childbearing and rearing did not excessively burden this study’s participants as family members afforded many of those I interviewed the flexibility to work by helping care for their children. A number of the interviewees expressed a preference for working with men, challenging the oft-cited development narrative that women ally themselves with other women and tend to view themselves in opposition to men. By providing context-specific information on some of the factors contributing to occupational segregation in Namibia, this study adds to the existing development and feminist literature related to the interplay between the productive and reproductive spheres of women’s lives as well as their options and choices concerning each.

The promotion of male educators in the early childhood care and education (ECCE) workforce has been pursued as a social policy in various countries around the world, yet this issue is virtually absent in ECCE literature and policy in South Africa. From certain child development, education and gender perspectives, more men in ECCE is seen as good for children, good for men, challenges gender stereotypes and enhances gender equity as well as the quality of ECCE. We know very little about male ECCE educators in South Africa. This study aims to shed light on their experiences and explore whether there is a need to promote gender inclusivity in ECCE in South Africa. Due to the virtual absence of this minority, a small sample of six male ECCE educators were purposively sampled in an in-depth, qualitative case study, using semi-structured interview schedule and face-to-face interviews. The study also explored the views of two key informants - academics working in early childhood and gender studies. Thematic content analysis of the data revealed some commonalities with previous studies. While some generalisations can be drawn the aim of the study was to gather contextualised accounts of these experiences and views on the broader social issues pertaining to the lack of men in the sector. The overall findings suggest that there is a need for existing and potential male educators to be encouraged, supported and made more visible. This requires network building by male educators themselves and support from the ECCE sector, Government and other stakeholders for programmes that promote attitude and institutional change.

On the Swedish labor market, occupational segregation has decreased during subsequent decades of the 20th century. However, it remains one of the most gender segregated labor markets in Europe. The reproduction of occupational segregation is considered a result of the intersection between structural and individual factors. In studying youth’s social capital extensity and occupational choice as well as the pathway in between, the present study fills a research gap in demonstrating a gendered nature of social capital in a country praised for its gender equity. Using LPM regression analyses on panel data acquired from the 2009 and 2013 waves of the Swedish survey Social capital and labor market integration: A cohort study, the results show support for the existence of gender differences both in accessed social capital and its influence on occupational choice. Seemingly, close members of social networks facilitate men and women into different occupations. The importance of social capital extensity however, is only present when choosing a male-dominated occupation, which is interpreted as that the preferred informal job search method is more often used in the private sector were most male-dominated occupations are found.

Sweden is ranked as one of the five most equal countries in the world. Despite this, there arestill some areas for improvement. There is a distinct gender-segregated labor market inSweden, which is mainly seen in the working professions, where there is also an overrepresentationof men in trade unions. The purpose of this study is to investigate the problemsthat may occur for union-elected women who work in male-dominated occupations. Previousresearch has shown women's involvement and challenges within trade unions in a global,national and a Swedish context. Further research has centered on the challenges women facewhen working in male-dominated occupations, primarily in a Swedish context but alsoglobally. The study's theoretical framework is based on Yvonne Hirdman's theory of gendersystem and gender contract. The empirical material has been collected through qualitativeinterviews with six informants who fulfilled the study's selection criteria. The results of thestudy show that women experience obstacles and challenges in the workplace due to theirgender in different ways. Being a trade union representative as a woman is also a factor thataffects them. However, the experience of being a woman and a union representative differsbetween the informants whether the response from others is positive or negative. The resultsshow that there are opportunities for change where both the union and employers must workactively on several levels with the problems to see a long-term change. / Sverige rankas som ett av de fem mest jämställda länderna i världen. Trots denna placeringförekommer det förbättringsmöjligheter inom vissa områden. Det råder en tydligkönssegregerad arbetsmarknad i Sverige som huvudsakligen ses inom arbetaryrkena, där detäven finns en överrepresentation av män i fackförbunden. Denna studies syfte är attundersöka vilka problem som kan tänkas förekomma för fackligt förtroendevalda kvinnorsom arbetar inom mansdominerade arbetaryrken. Tidigare forskning har berört kvinnorsengagemang och utmaningar inom fackförbund i global, nationell och svensk kontext. Vidareforskning har berört de utmaningar kvinnor möter som arbetar på mansdomineradearbetsplatser, främst i svensk kontext men även globalt. Studiens teoretiska ramverk utgårfrån Yvonne Hirdmans teorier om genussystem och genuskontrakt. Det empiriska materialethar samlats in via kvalitativa intervjuer med sex informanter som uppfyller studiensurvalskriterier. Resultatet av studien visar att kvinnorna upplever hinder och utmaningar påarbetsplatserna på grund av deras kön på olika sätt. Att som kvinna vara fackligtförtroendevald är även en faktor som påverkar dem. Upplevelsen av att vara kvinna ochfackligt förtroendevald skiljer sig dock åt mellan informanterna om responsen från andra ärpositiv eller negativ. Resultatet visar att det finns förändringsmöjligheter där bådefackförening och arbetsgivare måste arbeta aktivt på flera nivåer med problemen för att se enlångsiktig förändring.

Cette thèse investigue les processus psychosociaux qui sous-tendent la disqualification de la déviance, en testant la transposition de processus connus dans les relations intergroupes (essentialisation et déshumanisation) aux rapports interpersonnels. Deux déviances sont étudiées : ne pas vouloir d‟enfant (étude 1 : N = 322 ; & 2 : N = 245) et exercer un métier incongru avec son genre (étude 3 : N = 247). L‟adhésion au stéréotype, l'essentialisation et la déshumanisation ont été mesurés par questionnaires. Nous constatons une large disqualification des personnes ne souhaitant pas d‟enfant, rendant la parentalité socialement obligatoire pour les hommes et les femmes. Toute femme serait mère par « nature », les hommes devenant pères par « choix ». En revanche, les déviants à la norme de genre dans le travail subissent une disqualification en demi-teinte, voire ambivalente. Au-delà de ces différences, les résultats des études corrélationnelles montrent de grandes similitudes entre la disqualification des exogroupes et celle des déviants. En effet, les déviants sont discrédités par un stéréotype (psychologisant et moralisant) et rejetés (considérés comme différents) par le biais de l'essentialisation. Plus une personne est déviante, moins elle est attractive, mais ne serait pas pour autant pleinement stigmatisée (déshumanisée). La stabilité de ce modèle reste à tester dans le cadre d‟autres déviances. / This thesis investigates psychosocial processes which underlie deviance disqualification, by testing the transposition of processes well known in intergroup relations (essentialization and dehumanization) to interpersonal relations. Two deviances are studied: being voluntarily childfree (study 1: N = 322; & study 2: N = 245) and working in gender atypical occupations (study 3: N = 247). Stereotype endorsement, essentialization and dehumanization are measured by questionnaires. A wide disqualification of people voluntary childlessness is observed, making parenthood compulsory for men and women. Every woman would be “naturally” a mother while fatherhood would be more a result of a “choice”. By contrast, people who work in gender atypical occupations suffer a mixed disqualification, even ambivalent. Beyond these differences, correlational results show great similarities between exogroup‟s and deviant‟s disqualification. Indeed, deviant people are discredited by a (psychologizing and moralizing) stereotype and rejected (regarded as different) through essentialization. The more someone is deviant, the less he is attractive, without actually being fully stigmatized (dehumanized).The stability of the model remains to be tested for other deviances.

TITLE: THE GENDER WAGE GAP OF CIVIL SERVICE EMPLOYEES AT ILLINOIS PUBLIC FOUR-YEAR UNIVERSITIES

Le vieillissement des populations dans les économies développées apparaît comme un enjeu majeur dans lequel l’emploi est au centre de toutes les préoccupations. Il influence, également, l’équilibre de leur système de protection sociale. Cette thèse s’intéresse à la faiblesse du taux d’emploi des séniors français, représentés par les plus de 50 ans, comparativement à celui des autres pays européens. L’inflexion des politiques publiques à l’égard des séniors, d’une logique d’exclusion à une logique d’inclusion du marché du travail, dans les années 2000, ne permet qu’une amélioration lente et limitée de leur taux d’emploi. Alors que les autres pays européens ont aussi été concernés par le changement de politiques, il est légitime de s’interroger sur les raisons de leur impact modéré en France.Cette thèse s’organise autour de deux parties complémentaires. La première partie fait état du constat de la faiblesse du taux d’emploi des séniors, en France comparativement à ses voisins européens (chapitre un). Cette faiblesse se traduit par une ségrégation professionnelle augmentant avec l’âge qui aboutit à une difficulté d’orientation des hommes âgés, dans certains secteurs et certaines professions au sein de ces secteurs. D’autres pistes de réflexion sur les raisons supposées de cette faiblesse des taux d’emploi des séniors sont également envisagées dans une revue de littérature (chapitre deux). Ces raisons proviennent de plusieurs champs : du champ structurel et des caractéristiques de l’offre et de la demande de travail, ce qui illustre la complexité de la problématique pour les pouvoirs publics. La deuxième partie s’attache à mesurer un facteur de sous-emploi des séniors persistant alors même qu’on neutralise toutes les raisons objectives pour lesquelles les préférences des recruteurs, à l’embauche, se portent moins sur les séniors : la discrimination à l’embauche liée à l’âge (et au sexe pour quelques cas particuliers). Deux types de méthodes et de données sont utilisés pour mesurer la partie résiduelle des écarts de probabilité d’être en emploi ou d’accès à l’emploi (dont la discrimination est un des composants) : les méthodes de décomposition sur des données d’enquête, donnant une mesure qualifiée d’objective (chapitre trois) avec une extension analysant le lien entre cette partie résiduelle et la conjoncture économique et la méthodologie des tests de correspondance, ou testing, sur des données expérimentales collectées sur une sélection de professions en tension (chapitre quatre). La première méthode démontre une partie résiduelle de l’écart de probabilité importante, laissant présager des risques élevés de discrimination liée à l’âge et au genre. La comparaison des taux d’accès à l’emploi de la deuxième méthode conduite sur près de 6 000 candidatures illustrent ces risques selon lesquels les séniors ont moins de chances d’accéder à un entretien d’embauche comparativement aux plus jeunes à caractéristiques semblables. Nous verrons les différentes hypothèses explicatives du sous-emploi des séniors, documentées par la littérature, comme la distance courte à la retraite, l’obsolescence des compétences en situation de chocs technologiques, les normes sociales de sexe (par la reconversion professionnelle) et d’âge (par les préférences exogènes des recruteurs).L’un des fils directeurs de la thèse est de distinguer la situation des hommes et des femmes séniors en matière d’emploi. On observe des différences manifestes sur l’ensemble de cette thèse avec une situation des hommes plus problématique que celle de leurs homologues féminines en termes d’écart de taux d’emploi, de ségrégation professionnelle et de discrimination à l’embauche. / The ageing of populations in developed economies appears as a major issue in which employment is at the centre of all concerns. It also influences the balance of their social protection system. This thesis is interested in the weakness employment rate of French older workers, considered as the population over 50 years old, compared to other European countries. The inflection of public policies for them, from logic of exclusion to logic of inclusion in the labour market, in the 2000s, allows only slow and limited improvements in the employment rate. While other European countries have also been affected by the policy change, it is legitimate to wonder about the reasons for their moderate impact on France.This thesis is organized into two complementary parts. The first part reports the finding of the low employment rate of older workers, in France compared to its European neighbours (chapter one) This weakness is reflected in occupational segregation increases with age, resulting in difficulties in terms of orientation of men, with age in some sectors and occupations within these sectors. Other subjects of reflection on why this supposed weakness of older workers employment rates are also considered in a literature review (chapter two). Those reasons come from many fields: both the structural field and the characteristics of labour supply and labour demand, which illustrates the complexity of the issue for the government. The second part attempts to measure a factor of persistent underemployment of older workers even as we neutralize all objective reasons why the hiring preferences of recruiters, move on less to seniors: the hiring age-related discrimination (and gender for some particular cases). Two types of methods and data are used to measure the residual part of the probability gaps of being in employment and access to employment (including discrimination is a component): decomposition methods on data of survey, giving a measure qualified objective (chapter three) with an extension analysing the link between this residual part and business cycle, and methodology of correspondence tests or testing on experimental data collected on a selection of occupations in tension (chapter four). The first method finds a significant residual part of the probability gap, suggesting high risk of related-age and gender discrimination. The comparison of access to employment rates of the second method made on around 6,000 applications illustrates these risks according to which the senior applicant have less chances to get a job interview, compared with younger having similar characteristics. We shall see the different explanatory assumptions of underemployment of older workers supported by the literature as the short distance from retirement, the obsolescence of skills in situation of technological shocks, the social norms of gender (by the vocational training) and of age (by exogenous preferences of employers).One of the recurring threads in the thesis is to distinguish the situation of older men of the senior women in employment. There are clear differences in this whole thesis with a situation more problematic men than their female counterparts in terms of employment rates gap, occupational segregation and employment discrimination.

This thesis focuses on gender based differences in occupational allocation in Central-European countries, i.e. in Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. The main goal is to find out how much of the gender differences is related to women being equipped with higher/lower human capital in comparison to men. This thesis uses data from 2010 Life in Transition Survey provided by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Focus will be placed on white/blue collar occupations split. For the empirical analysis an extension of the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition for binary dependent variable model provided by Fairlie (2005) will be used.