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Anaerobic digestion of wastewater sludge has widely been in application for stabilization of sludge. With the increase in hauling cost and many environmental and health concerns regarding land application of biosolids, digestion processes generating minimized sludge with better effluent characteristics is becoming important for many public and wastewater utilities. This study was designed to investigate the performance of anaerobic-aerobic-anaerobic digestion of sludge and compare it to anaerobic-aerobic digestion and single stage mesophilic digestion of sludge. Experiments were carried out in three stages: Single-stage mesophilic anaerobic digestion (MAD) 20d SRT; Sequential Anaerobic/Aerobic digestion (Ana/Aer); and Anaerobic/Aerobic/Anaerobic digestion (An/Aer/An). The Anaerobic/Aerobic/Anaerobic digestion of sludge was studied with two options to determine the best option in terms of effluent characteristics. The two sludge withdrawal options were to withdraw effluent from the anaerobic digester (An/Aer/An – A) or withdraw effluent from the aerobic digester (An/Aer/An – B). Different operational parameters, such as COD removal, VS destruction, biogas production, Nitrogen removal, odor removal and dewatering properties of the resulting biosolids were studied and the results were compared among different processes. From the study, it was found that An/Aer/An – B (wastage from aerobic reactor) provided better effluent characteristics than An/Aer/An – A (wastage from anaerobic reactor), Ana/Aer or conventional MAD. The study also shows that the Anaerobic/Aerobic/Anaerobic (An/Aer/An, with wastage from the aerobic or anaerobic digester) digestion of the sludge can improve the biosolids quality by improving the dewatering capabilities, with lower optimum polymer dose, reduced CST and increased cake solid concentration, and reduce the odor generation from the biosolids. Both An/Aer/Ana – A and An/Aer/An – B gave 70% VS removal, compared to 50% with single MAD and 62% with only Ana/Aer. COD removal of both An/Aer/An – A and An/Aer/An – B was 70%, while it was 50% and 66% for single MAD and Ana/Aer respectively. In the aerobic reactors of Ana/Aer and An/Aer/An - B, nitrification and denitrification with removal of nitrogen was observed. The An/Aer/An – B system had more ammonia and TKN removal (70%) than Ana/Aer (64%). The effluent from each stage was analyzed for dewatering ability, cake solid concentration and odor production potential. Compared with a single Ana/Aer system, the extra anaerobic step in An/Aer/An – A and – B reduced polysaccharides in the effluent. The Ana/Aer system released less protein than the conventional MAD system and the addition of the second anaerobic step - especially with system An/Aer/An – B (discharge from aerobic reactor) - greatly reduced protein, resulting in improved dewaterability and less polymer demand. An/Aer/An (both of the options: A and B) had lower CST than single MAD (both 15d and 20d SRT) and Ana/Aer. Compared to Ana/Aer, a reduction of 52% for An/Aer/An – A and 20% for An/Aer/An – B in polymer dose requirement was observed, indicating improved dewatering characteristics. The An/Aer/An – B has higher biosolid cake concentration than MAD or Ana/Aer. The results showed that An/Aer/An (both options: A and B) biosolid had lower odor generation potential than single MAD (15d and 20d SRT) or Ana/Aer. Of all the stages,the An/Aer/An – A and – B system, generated odor which peaked at shorter time and lasted for shorter duration of time. / Master of Science

The main objective of this research was to identify the compounds responsible for persistent odors in biosolids during long-term storage using olfactometry measurements and to determine their generation pattern with regard to time of appearance and decline using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Another objective of this study was to investigate the effect of various digestion and dewatering techniques on odors and determine if there is a correlation between the peak concentration and time of appearance of short-tem organic sulfur odors and persistent odors. Headspace analysis was used to quantify short-term odor-causing organic sulfur compounds and persistent odors from compounds such as indole, skatole, butyric acid and p-cresol for an incubation period up to 150 days. A unique odor generation pattern was observed for each of the compounds analyzed for all the dewatered cakes tested in this study. Dewatered cake samples were also analyzed to determine their detection threshold by a trained odor panel and the results were consistent with the general pattern of odor generation observed in this study. Positive correlations were observed between the peak concentration of organic sulfur and persistent odor compounds whereas little or no relationship was observed between their times of appearance. The type of sludge used in digestion (primary sludge, WAS and mix) was found to affect the production of odor-causing compounds significantly. Primary sludge produces the highest odors followed by mix. WAS was found to produce biosolids with a low odor concentration. Positive correlation was observed between odor concentration and digestion SRT. Significant reduction in odor concentration was observed when the SRT was increased from 12-days to 25-days. At 45-day SRT, further reduction in odors was not very significant. Moreover, the results from this study indicate that methanogens play an important role in the degradation of both organic sulfur and persistent odors. Although the highest odors during biosolids incubation came from sulfur compounds, the persistent odors must be managed as part of a comprehensive sludge management approach. / Master of Science

Thesis (M.Tech.: Food Technology)-Dept of Biotechnology, Durban University of Technology, 2007 xvi, 106 leaves / Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris is a spore-forming spoilage micro-organism found in fruit juices whose spores are not destroyed by typical pasteurisation. Once its spores outgrow and multiply in finished juice products, they produce two volatile taint compounds namely guaiacol and 2,6-dibromophenol. In the food industry margins for errors are small and monitoring of products to avert such errors is crucial. Conventional microbiological monitoring is one such technique for spoilage micro-organisms another being automated systems which can detect taints. Both these categories were evaluated in this study with the electronic nose and gas chromatograph being the specific automated systems being assessed. Sensory evaluation was also assessed as a diagnostic tool in the detection of taints. Isolation and identification of what was thought to be A. acidoterrestris was a laborious and expensive exercise which eventually proved inconclusive. A pure culture was purchased and juices were then inoculated with two levels of A. acidoterrestris spores and incubated. Juices from each level of inoculation were evaluated at different time intervals via the above-mentioned monitoring techniques. Of the three media assessed in the microbiological method, Bacillus acidoterrestris medium (BAM) was found to be the most effective for enumerating A. acidoterrestris followed by K-medium (KM) then Orange Serum Agar (OSA). While BAM was still indicating the presence of A. acidoterrestris KM and OSA were not (counts of <10cfu/g). This illustrated that this micro-organism could be easily overlooked if KM or OSA were being used to enumerate them. Considering that many workers actually do use KM and OSA as their media of choice in enumerating A. acidoterrestris (perhaps because BAM is very tedious to prepare) the cause for concern is a real one. Assessment of the resultant taints via sensory evaluation after inoculation and incubation reveals the inability of many panellists to detect taints at levels (as assessed by GC) far above their documented threshold values. While GC is an extremely useful and powerful tool, the level of expertise and skill required to use such an instrument cannot be overlooked nor can the expense involved. With regard to the electronic nose assessment for the presence of the volatile taint compounds, an important finding was that the electronic nose indicated significant differences between test and control samples when panellists performing sensory evaluation did not. This also correlated to an interval when enumeration on OSA illustrated no A. acidoterrestris after several days of inoculation and incubation and BAM and KM did. Without implying that the electronic nose has no drawbacks, it has proved, in this instance to be a simple and easy piece of equipment to use. It can be used to detect taints produced under simulated spoilage conditions at reduced analysis times, levels of expertise, cost and energy.

Thesis (M.Tech.: Food Technology)-Dept of Biotechnology, Durban University of Technology, 2007 xvi, 106 leaves / Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris is a spore-forming spoilage micro-organism found in fruit juices whose spores are not destroyed by typical pasteurisation. Once its spores outgrow and multiply in finished juice products, they produce two volatile taint compounds namely guaiacol and 2,6-dibromophenol. In the food industry margins for errors are small and monitoring of products to avert such errors is crucial. Conventional microbiological monitoring is one such technique for spoilage micro-organisms another being automated systems which can detect taints. Both these categories were evaluated in this study with the electronic nose and gas chromatograph being the specific automated systems being assessed. Sensory evaluation was also assessed as a diagnostic tool in the detection of taints. Isolation and identification of what was thought to be A. acidoterrestris was a laborious and expensive exercise which eventually proved inconclusive. A pure culture was purchased and juices were then inoculated with two levels of A. acidoterrestris spores and incubated. Juices from each level of inoculation were evaluated at different time intervals via the above-mentioned monitoring techniques. Of the three media assessed in the microbiological method, Bacillus acidoterrestris medium (BAM) was found to be the most effective for enumerating A. acidoterrestris followed by K-medium (KM) then Orange Serum Agar (OSA). While BAM was still indicating the presence of A. acidoterrestris KM and OSA were not (counts of <10cfu/g). This illustrated that this micro-organism could be easily overlooked if KM or OSA were being used to enumerate them. Considering that many workers actually do use KM and OSA as their media of choice in enumerating A. acidoterrestris (perhaps because BAM is very tedious to prepare) the cause for concern is a real one. Assessment of the resultant taints via sensory evaluation after inoculation and incubation reveals the inability of many panellists to detect taints at levels (as assessed by GC) far above their documented threshold values. While GC is an extremely useful and powerful tool, the level of expertise and skill required to use such an instrument cannot be overlooked nor can the expense involved. With regard to the electronic nose assessment for the presence of the volatile taint compounds, an important finding was that the electronic nose indicated significant differences between test and control samples when panellists performing sensory evaluation did not. This also correlated to an interval when enumeration on OSA illustrated no A. acidoterrestris after several days of inoculation and incubation and BAM and KM did. Without implying that the electronic nose has no drawbacks, it has proved, in this instance to be a simple and easy piece of equipment to use. It can be used to detect taints produced under simulated spoilage conditions at reduced analysis times, levels of expertise, cost and energy.

published_or_final_version / Architecture / Master / Master of Architecture

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Canines are regularly utilized by law enforcement agencies to detect explosives. However, the mechanism by which canines respond to explosive vapors is not well understood, leading to difficulties in canine training and testing. It is known that the amount of vapor generated from explosive compounds is dependent upon several factors including sample amount, vapor pressure, and the degree of confinement. Underlying these factors is the basic process of evaporation of an unconfined explosive, which is rucial to understanding how explosive vapors behave in other, more confined, systems. In Stage One of this study, evaporation rates were determined for several explosive liquids using an analytical balance. These rates were compared to one another as well as to theoretical models for the evaporation of liquids. In general and as expected, mass decreased linearly with time and evaporation rates decreased logarithmically as boiling point increased. Several examples of solvent “pinning” on a metal surface were also observed. While an empirical model for the evaporation of unconfined explosive liquids was developed, a comprehensive model for the escape of explosive vapors from sealed containers (i.e., a suitcase, knapsack, or IED container itself) is needed. The second part of Stage One of this study was to determine that the flow rate of explosive vapors escaping from relatively large orifices does not conform to Fick’s Law of Diffusion. Fick’s model states that the flow rate is linearly dependent upon the cross sectional area of the orifice and the material’s diffusion coefficient. Instead, the flow rate was found to be linearly dependent upon the diameter of the orifice due to the tendency of the flow to diffuse outwards from its circular edge. A clear relationship between flow rate and diffusion coefficient was seen, however. Additional uncertainty arises concerning the complexity of the odor generated from explosive compounds. Because explosive vapors are often complex (they consist of multiple chemical compounds), confusion exists regarding the cause of canine alert; that is the “odor compound” that allows for canine detection of various explosives. Although 2, 4- dinitrotoluene (DNT) has been explored as a potential odor compound, the possibility of a nitrated explosive inherently producing nitrated gas upon decomposition has not. Stage Two of this study focused on evaluating nitrate as a potential cause of canine alerts. An LC/MS method for the detection of nitrate ions in Composition C-4 and flake trinitrotoluene (TNT) was developed and tested. Instrumental analysis was not successful in detecting nitrate ions in any of the explosives tested. The lack of nitrate was confirmed using a diphenylamine color test for nitrates, thus eliminating nitrate as an odor compound and cause of canine alert to nitroaromatic compounds. 2, 4-DNT has been introduced as a potential odor compound of TNT, however, the mechanisms behind its vapor emission have not been thoroughly explored. More specifically, due to the “sticky” nature of the 2, 4-DNT isomer, the effects of surface adhesion to container walls are of concern. In particular, whether the amount of material lost to surface adhesion is significant enough to effect canine detection of TNT. A second focus of Stage Two explored this concern. A GC/MS method for the detection and separation of TNT and DNT isomers in liquid extracts was developed and the amount of 2, 4-DNT residues adhering to container walls was quantified. These values, compared to the amount 2,4-DNT expected to saturate each container (determined by the Ideal Gas Law), showed a significant preference of 2,4-DNT in the solid phase as opposed to in the gas phase. The amount of residue adhering to the walls of a gallon can differed from expected values by nearly 70%. The amount of material extracted from a quart can exceeded expected values by 137%. The apparent sticky nature of 2, 4-DNT resulted in a significant loss of material needed to fully saturate a container and thus canine detection success may be affected. In the final stage of this study, theories regarding odor compounds and odor availability of nitromethane, TNT, and Composition C-4 were tested using certified explosives-detecting canines. These trials included thirty-three canine-handler teams from eight government agencies. The odor availability of nitromethane was tested by placing varying volumes of nitromethane in containers with differing degrees of confinement and studying the effects on canine detection success. The odor availability trial showed no significant effect of sample amount or degree of confinement on canine detection so long as the sample volume was sufficient to saturate its container. In this study that volume was determined to be < 1 mL. Detection of 2, 4-DNT, TNT-NESST (Non-Hazardous Explosives for Security Training and Testing), and flake TNT were also studied using certified canines. The purpose of this was to identify the odorant responsible for canine alert to the explosive TNT. These trials showed a significant response to 2, 4-DNT compared to TNT and its training aid; this suggests that 2, 4-DNT is the primary cause of canine alerts to TNT. Additionally, Composition C-4 and RDX-NESTT were tested along with potential odor compounds that included the manufacturing solvent, cyclohexanone, the energetic “taggant” 2, 3-dimethyl-2.3-dinitrobutane (DMNB), the plasticizer dioctyladipate (DOA) and its degradation product 2-ethyl-1-hexanol. While some response to DMNB and cyclohexanone was seen, the most significant response was to the actual Composition C-4. This suggests that the cause of canine alert to Composition C-4 is the explosive mixture as a whole and not a single chemical component of the mixture

Master of Science / Food Science / Delores H. Chambers / Tools are available, through various reference books, to develop a purposeful sensory quality program. Some companies already have a strong sensory program in place; others may require a cultural change to facilitate the implementation. This paper indicates some of the challenges to be overcome, covers some current quality control (QC) sensory practices and addresses advantages and disadvantages of expert tasters Some specific issues regarding sensory evaluations of alcohol beverages are discussed and critical factors in production are reviewed with discussion on the potential for off taint development.

Call number: LD2668 .T4 1984 L385 / Master of Science

Thesis (MTech (Environmental Management))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017. / ¹Odour nuisance is increasingly becoming one of the major environmental problems in various countries across the world, especially odour associated with wastewater (Alfonsin et al., 2015; Schlegelmilch et al., 2005; Gostelow et al., 2001). As a result, the management of odour from Wastewater Treatment Works (WWTW) has become one of the environmental challenges besetting these facilities in recent times. The dispersion of odour across the physical boundary of wastewater treatment facilities presents not only negative environmental impacts to the natural environment, but also constitute a nuisance to surrounding populations. The Athlone (WWTW) located in the urban City of Cape Town with high demographics and adjacent to sensitive communities is thus not immune to poor air quality associated with WWTW activities (Walton, 2005). The population growth due to rural-urban migration has further put severe pressure on the facility and thus worsening the odour problem in the area. As a result, complaints have been received by the City Council from the surrounding communities over the last 20 years. In response to these complaints, the management of the WWTW introduced an odour management system with a particular focus on the use of a biotrickling filter coupled with the use of odour masking sprays. This management intervention was adopted in order to control the odour emitted to the atmosphere from the facility (WWTW). While these measures are said to reduce the prevalence of odour to the surrounding environment, it was, however, not clear whether or not such management interventions have reduced odour emitted from the treatment plant. This research was premised on two postulations as an approach to analyse the effect of the odour management plan adopted by the Athlone WWTW’s management and these are: 1) the perceived experience of odour by the adjacent neighbouring communities and, 2) the understanding of the inherent atmospheric dynamics (such as wind velocity, atmospheric stability, inversion layer and ventilation) which influence odour dispersal in the area. The research project argues that these two factors should be taken into account to ensure that the management of odour is sustainable. It is within this background that the research aimed at assessing the management of odour at the Athlone WWTW and to find out, if at all, the inherent local atmospheric conditions in the area and views of the surrounding communities are incorporated into the management of odour from the plant. The methodological design adopted in the study was case study approach. However, the atmospheric data (wind speed and direction) was obtained from the South African Weather Service (SAWS). These variables were analysed qualitatively and experimentally by the use of wind diagrams to provide insight on 2atmospheric stability conditions, surface inversion and topographical properties, and how these phenomenon influences odour dispersion. The study also reviewed previous odour management reports produced by the Althone WWTW management. This type of data was finally supported by data collected from the community by means of a community survey, face-to-face in-depth interviews and qualitative observation. Some major findings from the study revealed that the local weather of Athlone influences the dispersion of odour – facilitating dispersion in the summer through high wind velocities, while impeding dispersion during winter due to the presence of atmospheric stability conditions. Prevailing odours in this community has led to a general feeling of displeasure amongst community members especially since the management of the treatment plan does not include the local community in the decision-making process. In spite of these, the facility’s management approach was found to be more of a response driven nature even though it is ranked as a high-risk facility.