D.Sc. (Zoology) / Please refer to full text to view abstract

Magister Scientiae - MSc / Water resources management practice has undergone changes in management approaches and principles over time. It was previously characterised by what scholars refer to as the hydraulic mission where ‘extreme engineering’ was the order of the day (Allan, 2003). As Radif (1999) argues, water resources managers and policy makers were initially driven to manage and supply water to people for its direct use; these included drinking, growing food, and providing power for domestic and industrial use. This modus operandi continued until the end of the 1970s. Over two decades later, this focus is still prevalent in many countries in southern Africa including Botswana. As Swatuk and Rahm (2004) state, “augmenting supply is a continuing focus of government activity”. The National Water Master Plan (NWMP) is the current policy document guiding water resources management in Botswana and it focuses on supply-side interventions in response to increasing water demand. According to SMEC et al. (1991), the consulting company that conducted the NWMP study, “the investigation and studies... indicated the need for the continuing development of water supplies throughout Botswana over the next 30 years”. Based on these observations, government has developed significant human and technical capacity in exploiting both surface and groundwater resources (Swatuk and Rahm, 2004). / South Africa

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Science Centre for African Ecology, School of Plant Animal and Environmental Sciences, 2011. / Habitat selection occurs across a range of different spatial scales and is influenced by a variety of factors, ultimately determining how animals distribute themselves across the landscape. Studying the decisions that an individual animal makes across different levels of selection, from its choice in dietary item to predator avoidance strategies, is a fundamental link in understanding the response of groups of animals and ultimately entire populations that may provide insight into population performance. The study formed part of a broader study focused on the decline of rare antelope species. Specifically this study was aimed at establishing the home range and resource use of sable antelope in a region where they were initially expected to be thriving. The levels of selection covered in this study are: the location of home ranges of an individual or social group within the landscape; the use of various habitat components within the home range; and the procurement of food items within those habitats. At the highest level, the broad objectives were (1) to determine where sable occupied home ranges within the landscape, indicating the suitability of various landscape units to sustain sable populations and (2) to determine the relative use of habitat types within those home ranges that may enable sable to avoid predation and acquire resources required to survive and reproduce. At the lowest level of selection the characteristics of forage selection and how the grass quality in the different vegetation types during different seasons affects the success of sable herds was explored. The broad objectives were (1) to determine the effect of seasonal flooding and rainfall on grass greenness in the floodplains and upland vegetation types and the consequent use of those vegetation types by sable antelope and (2) to determine how exploitation of resources in the floodplains and in the uplands contributed to the nutritional status of sable. I additionally quantified the time spent browsing and determined the composition of the browse component of the diet of sable. Adult female sable from each of three adjacent sable herds were fitted with GPS collars providing hourly GPS co-ordinates. Adaptive LoCoH was used to determine home range location and annual, seasonal and core home range extents. A vegetation map was created and the number of GPS locations within each vegetation type was counted to determine their relative use in relation to availability within the home ranges. GPS collars were used to locate herds daily so that foraging observations of browsing and characteristics of the grasses grazed could be attained. Acceptability and dietary contributions of grass species and browse were determined for each sable herd during different seasons. The availability of grass species on the floodplain grasslands and in the upland grasslands and woodlands was estimated. Water and the availability of key resources posed a constraint on where sable home ranges were established. Sable simply did not occupy the region in the north of the study area further than 7 km from permanent water and floodplain grasslands. Herds generally avoided open savanna, mopane woodlands and Kalahari apple-leaf woodlands characterised by sparse grass cover, particularly during the dry season. Home ranges were relatively small compared 4 to the range estimates from herds in Kruger National Park. There was no obvious seasonal difference in home range extent nor were there large areas of overlap between home ranges of adjacent herds. Observations during the study indicated that competitor species, including zebra and wildebeest, concentrated on the floodplain grasslands. Throughout the year H. dissoluta was the most strongly favoured grass species and contributed most to the diet of the sable herds in both the wet and dry season. During the dry season sable herds expanded their diet to include Aristida stipitata and Aristida meridionalis which are generally considered poor forage value species for cattle but that retained some greenness. Additionally, the contribution of browse, especially the leaves of Croton megalobotrys, Philenoptera nelsii and Combretum mossambicense and the flowers of Kigelia africana, constituted an important bridging resource during the extended dry season. Crude faecal protein levels remained above the suggested maintenance levels throughout the annual cycle. Crude faecal protein levels were elevated prior to calving when sable spent more time foraging on the floodplain grasslands where high value forage species such as Paspalum scrobiculatum, Panicum repens and Urochloa mossambicense and sedges were eaten. Indications are that the constraint posed by the distribution of water within the landscape, rather than resource limitations within occupied home ranges, are the primary limitation to population performance in the Kwedi concession. / Wilderness Safari, the Wilderness Wildlife Trust, the Conservation Foundation, Classic Africa and National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa.

Thesis (MPA)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This theoretically guided qualitative and quantitative study aims at investigating the extent to which centralization of fiscal powers in the Namibian State has been detrimental to development activities of the Okavango Regional Council. A further aim is to make recommendations and suggest balanced inter-governmental fiscal relations between central and regional governments in Namibia. The significance" of this study lies in the fact that, since the abolition of homelands in Namibia by the incumbent goven:rrnent in the 1990s, no comprehensive study has been carried out to analyze the socio-economic implications of such centralization of powers by central government. The study demonstrates that the degree of autonomy afforded to regional governments in Namibia stagnates their role as socio-economic development agents/facilitators. The study also examines the causes of disparities between centnil and regional governments. Important among the causes is the legal framework, which does not specify a fixed sharing formula. A number of corrective measures are suggested by the study. Among these measures are the decentralisation of functions that can be efficiently performed by regional governments, assignment of taxes to regional governments and amendment of existing legislation to allow for a balanced inter-governmental relations policy. The study further suggests that decentralization of functions to regions needs to be carefully planned and implemented because to lack of resource endowment and experienced personnel in the regions. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie teoreties-gefundeerde kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe studie is daarop gemik om te bepaal tot watter mate die sentralisering van fiskale magte in die Namibiese regering 'n nadelige effek op die ontwikkelings-aktiwiteite van die Okavango Streeksraad gehad het. Nog 'n doelwit (van die studie) is om aanbevelings en voorstelle te maak vir die daarstelling van gebalanseerde inter-regeringsverhoudings tussen sentrale- en streeksowerhede in Namibië. Die waarde van hierdie studie lê in die feit dat, sedert die afskaffing van tuislande in Namibië deur die huidge regering in die 1990s, geen omvattende ondersoek nog gedoen is om die sosio-ekonomiese implikasies van so 'n sentralisering van magte deur die sentrale regering te ontleed nie. Die studie dui aan dat die mate van selfbestuur wat aan streeksowerhede in Namibië toegeken is, hulle rol as die agente/fasiliteersders van sosio-ekonomiese ontwikkeling kniehalter. Die studie ondersoek ook die oorsake van die verskille wat tans tussen sentrale- en streeksowerehede bestaan. Een van die hoofredes hiervoor blyk te wees die feit dat die bestaande resraamwerk/statutêre nie 'n vaste formule (vir die deling van mag) bepaal nie. 'n Aantal korrektiewe maatreëls word deur die studie aan die hand gedoen. Die aanbevelings sluit onder andere in maatreëls om dié funskies te densentraliseer wat effektief deur streeksowerhede gedoen kan word, die toekenning van belasting aan streeksowerhede en die wysiging van bestaande wetgewing om voorsiening te maak vir 'n gebalanseerde interregeringsverhoudingsbeleid. Die studie beveel verder aan dat die desentralisering van funkies na streke noukeurig beplan en geimplementeer moet word in die lig van 'n gebrek aan middele en ervare personneel in die streke.

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Economic valuation of the Okavango Delta can support decision making in a complex socio-economic environment in which economic development depends on a deep understanding of the value of biodiversity. The use of a natural resource accounting framework in determining the value of goods and services is crucial. The total economic value of the Okavango Delta was estimated by using primary (household valuation) and secondary data. A natural resource accounting framework was used. The components of the total economic value were the composition of wild herbivores and vegetation, and the functional values, which comprised direct use values of wild herbivores, river reed, thatching grass, wild fruits, fuelwood and palm leaves, indirect consumptive values of honey production, carbon sequestration, livestock grazing, milk production, non-consumptive use of tourism, and existence and bequest values. The values of the composition and function are expressed in per/ha values. The value of the composition of wild herbivores was estimated at P1 444 992 400 (US$ 294 850 699.2) or US$ 27.4/ha, while the functional value was estimated at P185 913 117.4 (US$ 37 527 840.96 or US$ 619.77/ha. Of the estimated direct use values of vegetation, river reed had the highest value of US$ 29.0/ha, while the highest value among indirect use values was that of milk production (US$ 8.5/ha). These values of selected resources reflect the contribution of the value of biodiversity of the Okavango Delta to the overall economy of the country and represent initial estimates of costs to society if these resources are lost. The estimated values can be used to raise awareness among decision makers of the economic benefits of conserving the Okavango Delta. Overall, the findings showed that the various components of the total economic value of the Okavango Delta were comparable to other wetlands in the region. / Thesis (PhD (Agricultural Economics))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

Thesis (MA (Political Science. International Studies))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / Bibliography / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Water is life. Its availability and quality directly relates to what is possible in agriculture as well as human health. In Southern Africa, water issues have become an important political agenda as a result of the droughts that the region has been experiencing. The Southern Africa Development Community (SADC), in its water protocol advises its member states to set up river basin organisations to manage transboundary rivers in Southern Africa. The aim is to encourage the sustainable use of international rivers. Sharing international rivers has proven to be a very difficult issue as shown by the voting patterns on the UN Convention on the Law of Non Navigational Uses of Transboundary Rivers and the subsequent failure of entry into force of this convention. While strategic interests on the global levels manifest themselves in voting patterns in forums like the UN Assembly, the situation is trickier at the regional level. These strategic interests are ever present as a result of states’ need for recognition of their sovereignty and the inability of states to accept any hierarchical enforcement. This study investigates the impact of these interests at the basin level on the structure of cooperation. With the use of a case study, namely the Okavango River Basin Commission, and guided by regime theory, the study looks at the process of regime formation and maintenance in the basin. It concludes that states use cooperative arrangements (international water cooperation regimes) as tools for the strategic protection of their sovereignty. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Water is lewe. Die beskikbaarheid en kwaliteit het direk te betrekking op wat moontlik toeneemed is in landbou so wel as menslike gesondheid. Water as ʼn noodsaaklike bron in suider-Afrika word meer en meer beskou as ʼn belangrike kwessie op die politieke agenda as gevolg van droogte wat in die streek ondervind word. ʼn Hoë vlak van belangrikheid word aan die bestuur van water binne die streek geheg. Die SAOG (Die Suider – Afrikaanse Ontwikkelings gemeenskap), het in sy water protokol aan sy lid state beveel om rivier kom organisasies te stig om beheer uit te oefen oor riviere in Suider- Afrika wat oor grense heen vloei. Die doel is om lidstate aan te moedig om die volhoubare gebruik van internasionale riviere te bevorder . Die vedeling van internasionale riviere is ‘n komplekse kwessie soos wat VN stempatrone aandui ten opsigte van die Wet op die Verbod teen Navigasie op Oorgrensende Riviere en die daaropvolgende versuim van die inwerkingtreding van die Konvensie aandui. As gevolg van state se behoefte vir erkenning van hul soewereiniteit en hul strategiese belange bly die deel van rivierkomme ‘n moeilike internasionale probleem. Hierdie studie ondersoek die impak van die bogenoemde belange op die kom vlak op die struktuur van samewerking. Met die gebruik van ʼn gevallestudie, naamlik die Okovango Rivier Kom Kommissie, en aan die hand van regime teorie, ondersoek die studie die proses van regime formasie asook die problematiek rondom die instandhouding van die Komissie. Die gevolgtrekking is dat state koöperatiewe reëlings (internasionale water samewerking regimes) as instrumente vir die beskerming van hul strategiese soewereiniteit en eie belange gebruik.

Thesis (MA (Political Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / Water is a vital resource essential to human survival and for which there is no substitute. Additionally, whilst water is still seen as a ‘renewable resource,’ reality seems to dictate that there is only a finite quantity of water available in water-scarce regions. As a result, ‘water’ and ‘war’ are two topics that have begun to be assessed together with increasing frequency. Water disputes have indeed been labelled as one of the “New Wars” in Africa, comparing it to the likes of other resource wars such as those over oil and diamonds. Placing water discourse within a theoretical framework of International Relations, this thesis attempts to ground the water war debate in the Fourth Great Debate of rationalism (downstream) and reflectivism (upstream), through a comparative analysis of Anthony Turton’s positivist approach, and Larry Swatuk and Peter Vale’s post-positivist sentiments embedded in reflectivism. The research aim can, therefore, be phrased as: to examine the debate surrounding the inevitability or impossibility of water wars by means of a comparative analysis of the works of Turton and Swatuk/Vale, as applied to the case study of the Okavango River basin and a tentative assessment of the Nile River basin. This study hypothesises that whether you swim upstream or downstream, a water war erupting in the Okavango River basin is never inevitable and quite implausible as argued by both theoretical perspectives. A bridge-building exercise is therefore conducted in an attempt to find commonalities between the two supposedly incommensurable perspectives of Turton and Swatuk/Vale. Furthermore, based on the tentative assessment of the Nile River Basin, this thesis also postulates that while the potential for water conflict is greater in this region, it is unlikely that a full-scale water war will erupt. Indeed, contrary to what doomsday soothsayers predict, interstate cooperation of shared water resources, such as the shared river basins of the Okavango and the Nile rivers, is more prevalent than conflictive situations.

<p>The Okavango river flows from southern Angola, through the Kavango region of Namibia and into the Okavango Delta in Botswana. The recent peace in Angola hopefully marks the end of the intense suffering that the peoples of the river basin have endured, and the beginning of sustainable decision-making in the area. Informed decision-making however requires knowledge; and there is a need for, and a lack of knowledge regarding basin-wide land cover (LC) changes, and their causes, during the Angolan civil war in the basin. Furthermore, there is a need for, and a lack of knowledge on how expanding large-scale agriculture and urban growth along the Angola-Namibia border affects the water quality of the river.</p><p>The aim of this study was therefore to develop a remote sensing method applicable to the basin (with scant ground-truth data availability) to carry out a systematic historic study of LC changes during the Angolan civil war, to apply the method to the basin, to relate these changes to major societal trends in the region, and to analyse potential impacts of expanding large-scale agriculture and urban growth on the water quality of the river along the Angola-Namibia border.</p><p>A range of remote sensing methods to study historic LC changes in the basin were tried and evaluated against reference data collected during a field visit in Namibia in October 2005. Eventually, two methods were selected and applied to pre-processed Landsat MSS and ETM+ satellite image mosaics of 1973 and 2001 respectively: 1. a combined unsupervised classification and pattern-recognition change detection method providing quantified and geographically distributed binary LC class change trajectory information and, 2. an NDVI (Normalised Difference Vegetation Index) change detection method providing quantified and geographically distributed continuous information on degrees of change in vegetation vigour. In addition, available documents and people initiated in the basin conditions were consulted in the pursuit of discerning major societal trends that the basin had undergone during the Angolan civil war. Finally, concentrations of nutrients (total phosphorous & total nitrogen), bacteria (faecal coliforms & faecal streptococci), conductivity, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature and Secchi depth were sampled at 11 locations upstream and downstream of large-scale agricultural facilities and an urban area during the aforementioned field visit.</p><p>The nature, extent and geographical distribution of LC changes in the study area during the Angolan civil war were determined. The study area (150 922 km²) was the Angolan and Namibian parts of the basin. The results indicate that the vegetation vigour is dynamic and has decreased overall in the area, perhaps connected with precipitation differences between the years. However while the vigour decreased in the northwest, it increased in the northeast, and on more local scales the pattern was often more complex. With respect to migration out of Angola into Namibia, the LC changes followed expectations of more intense use in Namibia close to the border (0-5 km), but not at some distance (10-20 km), particularly east of Rundu. With respect to urbanisation, expectations of increased human impact locally were observed in e.g. Rundu, Menongue and Cuito Cuanavale. Road deterioration was also observed with Angolan urbanisation but some infrastructures appeared less damaged by the war. Some villages (e.g. Savitangaiala de Môma) seem to have been abandoned during the war so that the vegetation could regenerate, which was expected. But other villages (e.g. Techipeio) have not undergone the same vegetation regeneration suggesting they were not abandoned. The areal extent of large-scale agriculture increased 59% (26 km²) during the war, perhaps as a consequence of population growth. But the expansion was not nearly at par with the population growth of the Kavango region (320%), suggesting that a smaller proportion of the population relied on the large-scale agriculture for their subsistence in 2001 compared with 1973.</p><p>No significant impacts were found from the large-scale agriculture and urbanisation on the water quality during the dry season of 2005. Total phosphorous concentrations (with range: 0.067-0.095 mg l^-1) did vary significantly between locations (p=0.013) but locations upstream and downstream of large-scale agricultural facilities were not significantly different (p=0.5444). Neither did faecal coliforms (range: 23-63 counts per 100ml) nor faecal streptococci (range: 8-33 counts per 100ml) vary significantly between locations (p=0.332 and p=0.354 respectively). Thus the impact of Rundu and the extensive livestock farming along the border were not significant at this time. The Cuito river on the other hand significantly decreased both the conductivity (range: 27.2-49.7 μS cm^-1, p<0.0001) and the total dissolved solid concentration (range: 12.7-23.4 mg l^-1, p<0.0001) of the mainstream of the Okavango during the dry season.</p><p>Land cover changes during the Angolan civil war, contributing causes and effects on water quality were studied in this research effort. Many of the obtained results can be used directly or with further application as a knowledge base for sustainable decision-making and management in the basin. Wisely used by institutions charged with that objective, the information can contribute to sustainable development and the ending of suffering and poverty for the benefit of the peoples of the Okavango and beyond.</p>