M.Com. (Information Technology) / ADLOA is an Architecture Description Language (ADL) proposed to describe biologicallyinspired complex adaptive architectures such as ontogenetic architectures. The need for an ontogenetic ADL stems from the lack of support from existing ADLs. This dissertation further investigates the similarities between existing intelligent architectures and ontogenetic architectures. The research conducted on current ADLs, artificial ontogeny and intelligent architectures reveals that there are similarities between ontogenetic architectures and other intelligent architectures. However, the dynamism of artificial ontogeny indicates a lack of support for architecture description. Therefore, the dissertation proposes two core mechanisms to address ontogenetic architecture description. Firstly, the ADLOA process is defined as a systematisation of artificial ontogeny. The process specifies a uniform approach to defining ontogenetic architectures. Secondly, a demonstration of the implemented ADLOA process is used, in conjunction with the ADLOA model, mechanisms and Graphical User Interface (GUI), to present a workable description environment for software architects. The result of the dissertation is a standalone ADL that has the ability to describe ontogenetic architectures and to produce language-dependent code frameworks using the Extensible Markup Language (XML) and Microsoft Visual Studio platform.

Sex and age determination are vital when attempting to establish identity from skeletal remains. There are two methodological approaches to sex determination, namely morphological and metrical methods. In this study the shape of the scapula was studied in order to gain information on its development and sexual dimorphism. One drawback to studying the scapula is its fragility, making it difficult to obtain adequate osteometric measurements. The aim of this study was to use geometric morphometrics to study the ontogeny and sexual dimorphism of the scapula. The sample consisted of 45 adult males and 45 adult females, as well as 81 juvenile scapulae of known individuals. The scapulae were photographed and 21 homologous landmarks were plotted to use for geometric morphometric analysis with the ‘tps’ series of programs, as well as the IMP package. The consensus thin- plate splines, as well as the vector thin- plate splines for adult males and females, as well as each consecutive year of growth in juveniles were compared with each other. The CVA and TwoGroup analyses yielded significant differences between males and females. The lateral and medial borders of females are straighter and the supraspinous fossa of females was more convexly curved than those of males. More than 91% of the adult females and 95.6% of the adult males were correctly assigned. Goodall’s F- test yielded a p- value of 0.20014 which was not significant. Hotelling’s T2- test yielded a significant p- value of 0.00039. Geometric morphometrics were found to be a valuable tool in the study of changes in shape in the growing years and it was found that the lateral border of juvenile scapulae remained constant with advancing age, while the medial border remained constant during early childhood up to the age of six, varying during older childhood and early adolescence and once again becoming constant from age 15 upwards. The largest changes in the juvenile shape could be seen in the supraspinous fossa, with the superior border having a concave shape up to the age of 10, and then displaying a convex shape from 12 to 19 years of age. Differences between the sexes in juveniles were not significant, but a larger sample may yield different results. In conclusion it was found that significant differences between the shapes of adult male and female scapula exist. / Dissertation (MSc (Anatomy))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Anatomy / unrestricted

L'objectif de cette thèse est l'étude de la plasticité phénotypique du sapin pectiné à l'aide de l'approche architecturale. Ces travaux se placent dans le contexte plus large de compréhension du développement des plantes pérennes en lien avec leur environnement et l'impact des changements climatiques en région méditerranéenne. Pour mener à bien ces objectifs, des études ont été menées ex-situ en conditions contrôlées (gradient d'ombrage et de disponibilité en eau) et in-situ au Mont Ventoux (gradient d'ombrage et altitudinal). Ces études ont consisté en l'analyse de la variabilité de différents traits architecturaux, généralement mesurés à l'échelle de la pousse annuelle, en lien avec l'architecture et l'environnement. Ces études ont permis de caractériser quantitativement le développement du sapin jusqu'à l'expression durable de la sexualité et de quantifier la réponse plastique à l'environnement lumineux, hydrique et climatique. Enfin, ce travail a permis d'approfondir le concept de plasticité architecturale et ses implications. / The aim of this work is to assess silver fir phenotypic plasticity with an architectural approach. This work take place in the context of understanding perennial plant development linked with their environment and the context of climate change in the Mediterranean region.For this, ex-situ (shading and watering treatments) and in-situ (shading and elevation gradients) studies were performed. They consist of the study of architectural traits variability, mainly measured at annual shoot scale, linked with plant architecture and environment.The results are the quantification of silver firs development up to reproductive tree and the quantification of plastic responses to light and hydric environment and climate. The concept of architectural plasticity and it consequences was also discussed.

Les crevettes Palaemonidae sont issues d'un clade ancestral marin, qui a montré une tendance évolutive remarquable à s'adapter à des conditions non-marines, envahissant avec succès les milieux estuariens et limniques. Adulte, Macrobrachium amazonicum (A) est une espèce d'eau douce (ED) avec une stratégie d'exportation vers les estuaires des larves qui ont besoin d'eau salée pour se développer. Des populations se sont trouvées au cours du temps isolées en ED ; elles ont récemment été décrites comme une nouvelle espèce, M. pantanalense (P), qui a acquis au cours de son évolution la capacité d'effectuer tout son cycle en ED, grâce à l'acquisition de l'hyper-osmorégulation en ED dès l'éclosion, et en perdant l'hypo-osmorégulation en eau salée. Ces deux espèces représentent un bon modèle pour la reconstruction des transitions évolutives des crevettes de l'eau salée à l'ED. L'objectif de ce travail est de comprendre les différences liées à l'adaptation physiologique et moléculaire à l'ED et donc à l'osmorégulation entre les deux espèces au cours de l'ontogénèse. Pour cela nous avons étudié l'ontogenèse comparative des organes osmorégulateurs, en particulier de la cavité branchiale, et la localisation et expression de différents transporteurs ioniques. Au niveau structural, aux stades larvaires, P a un développement branchial plus précoce que A. La Na+/K+ ATPase (NKA) a été essentiellement immunolocalisée au niveau des branchies chez P et au niveau des branchiostégites chez A aux mêmes stades larvaires. Ceci suggère que la forte capacité d'hypo-osmorégulation durant l'ontogenèse de A est liée aux transports ioniques dans les branchiostegites, alors que les lamelles branchiales ne sont pas complètement développées. Sur le plan ultrastructural, les lamelles branchiales des deux espèces comportent deux types de cellules associées, les cellules septales et les cellules piliers qui toutes deux présentent des caractéristiques d'ionocytes. Une différentiation ultrastructurale a été observée au niveau des cellules piliers et de l'épithélium interne des branchiostégites suite à une acclimatation en ED. Ces cellules présentent des microvillosités apicales, profondes et nombreuses, ce qui semble être une adaptation aux faibles salinités permettant une absorption efficace d'ions. Les transporteurs ioniques impliqués dans l'osmorégulation ont été étudiés. La V-H+ ATPase (VHA) a été détectée au niveau des cellules piliers et de l'épithélium interne des branchiostégites. La NKA et l'échangeur Na+/H+ (NHE-3) ont été localisés au niveau des cellules septales. Des différences d'expressions géniques de la VHA, du NHE-3 et de la NKA ont été mesurées en comparant les 2 espèces à certains stades de développement. La distribution différentielle de ces transporteurs entre les cellules piliers et septales suggère que ces deux cellules pourraient fonctionner comme un complexe cellulaire pour absorber ou sécréter des ions. Chez P, la capacité de tous les stades à hyper-réguler en ED peut provenir du développement précoce des branchies fonctionnelles, et la perte de l'hypo-régulation peut être liée au manque de transports ioniques au niveau des branchiostégites. Enfin, les glandes excrétrices antennaires produisent de l'urine hypotonique chez les juvéniles et adultes des deux espèces en ED, ce qui diminue les pertes ioniques. Ces résultats illustrent des adaptations évolutives (perte et gain de fonctions) qui ont permis l'invasion des habitats d'ED. / Palaemonid shrimps originate from an ancestral marine clade showing a remarkable evolutionary ability to adapt to non-marine conditions, successfully invading estuarine and limnic habitats. Macrobrachium amazonicum (A) is a freshwater (FW) species as an adult with an export strategy toward estuaries of larvae requiring salt water for their development. Over time, some populations ended up isolated in FW; recently, they have been described as a new species, M. pantanalense (P), which during its evolution has become able to complete its entire life cycle in FW, thanks to the acquisition of hyper-osmoregulation in FW from hatching, while loosing hypo-osmoregulation in salt water. The two species offer a valuable model to reconstruct the evolutionary transitions of shrimps from salt water to FW. The objective of this study was to decipher the differences in physiological and molecular adaptations to FW, thus in osmoregulation, between both species during ontogeny. We studied the comparative ontogeny of osmoregulatory organs, particularly the branchial chamber, and the localization and expression of ion transporters. During the larval phase, we found that the gill development starts earlier in P than in A. Na+/K+ ATPase (NKA) was mainly localized in gills of P and in branchiostegites of A at the same larval stages. This suggests that the high capacity to hypo-osmoregulate during the ontogeny of A originates from ionic transports in branchiostegites, while gill lamellae are not fully developed. In both species, the gill lamellae contain two associated cells types, septal and pillar cells, displaying features of ionocytes. After FW acclimation, ultrastructural differences were observed in pillar cells and in the inner epithelium of branchiostegites. These cells possess numerous deep apical microvilli, a possible adaptation to low salinities for efficient ion uptake. Regarding ion transporters involved in osmoregulation, V-H+ ATPase (VHA) was detected in pillar cells and in the inner branchiostegite epithelium. NKA and Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE-3) were localized in septal cells. Differences in VHA, NHE-3 and NKA gene expression were observed by comparing the two species at certain developmental stages. The differential distribution of these transporters between pillar and septal cells suggest that these two cells may function as a cell complex for ion absorption or secretion. In P, the capacity of all stages to hyper-regulate in FW may originate from the early development of functional gills; and the loss of hypo-regulation may originate from an absence of ion transport in branchiostegites. Finally, the excretory antennal glands produce hypotonic urine in juveniles and adults of both species in FW, thus reducing ion loss. These results illustrate evolutionary adaptations (gain and loss of functions) that have permitted the invasion of FW habitats.

Orientador: Simone de Pádua Teixeira / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-18T14:54:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Basso-Alves_JoaoPaulo_M.pdf: 5360673 bytes, checksum: dcedc4cbe8765f92aca350ab0d6cfac5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: A ausência de um dos verticilos reprodutivos em algumas flores pode decorrer da perda ou supressão de primórdios, o que pode ser elucidado por meio de estudos morfológicos do desenvolvimento floral. Ficus L. é um ótimo modelo para estes estudos, uma vez que possui representantes com sistemas sexuais diversos. Assim, o presente trabalho teve por objetivo comparar a morfologia da flor em desenvolvimento em Ficus citrifolia (monóica), F. hispida (ginodióica), F. racemosa (monóica secundária) e F. religiosa (monóica), a fim compreender as vias ontogenéticas que promovem a condição flor imperfeita. Para tal, sicônios em diversos estádios de desenvolvimento foram coletados, fixados em FAA 50, dissecados em lupa e preparados para observações de superfície em microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) e histológicas em microscopia de luz. A organização dos meristemas florais e das flores no interior do sicônio é muito congesta na maioria das espécies estudadas, sendo menos acentuada em F. hispida (ginodióica). Diferenças no tempo de emergência dos meristemas e de alongamento do pedicelo em flores carpeladas foram observadas nas espécies monóicas (F. citrifolia, F. racemosa e F. religiosa) e parecem ser cruciais para a formação da heterostilia incompleta, típica de espécies monóicas deste gênero. As flores carpeladas de todas as espécies exibiram formação de sinestigma ao final do desenvolvimento (exceto aquelas do sicônio produtores de galha em F. hispida). Nossos dados, comparados aos de literatura, indicam que a ausência de estames nas flores carpeladas, tanto em espécies monóicas quanto em ginodióicas de Ficus, deve-se a um processo de perda, ou seja, os primórdios de estames não são iniciados no meristema floral. As flores estaminadas de F. hispida apresentaram supressão carpelar. A perda de primórdios estaminais é difundida no gênero e em Moraceae; já o carpelo pode ser perdido ou suprimido nestes grupos. Aspectos do desenvolvimento floral também são discutidos em relação à reprodução e biologia floral de Ficus / Abstract: The absence of reproductive organs in some flowers may ontogenetically arise by organ loss or suppression. Ficus L. is an interesting model for floral developmental studies, due to its diversity in sexual systems. The aim of this study was to compare the morphology of the floral development in Ficus citrifolia (monoecious), F. hispida (gynodioecious), F. racemosa (secondary monoecious) and F. religiosa (monoecious), to help understanding the ontogenetic pathways that promote the condition "imperfect flower". Thus, figs at various developmental stages were collected, fixed in FAA 50 and prepared for surface (scanning electron microscopy) and histological observations (light microscopy). The organization of the floral meristem and flowers inside the syconium is quite compressed, although F. hispida (gynodioecious) exhibits a less compressed floral arrangement inside the syconium. Variation in meristem inception time and pedicel elongation were observed in carpellate flowers of monoecious species (F. citrifolia, F. racemosa and F. religiosa) and should be crucial for establishment of incomplete heterostyly. The carpellate flowers of all species showed a sinstigma in the later developmental stages (except the gall-producing syconium in F. hispida). The staminate flowers of F. hispida showed carpel suppression. Our data, compared with those in the literature, indicate that the absence of stamens in carpellate flowers is due to loss of stamen primordium, both in gynodioecious and monoecious species. This condition is present in the genus and in Moraceae as a whole, while the carpel primordium may be lost or suppressed in this group. Aspects of floral development observed in Ficus are discussed in relation to their systematic and reproductive biology / Mestrado / Biologia Vegetal / Mestre em Biologia Vegetal

Orientador: Alexandre Ninhaus Silveira / Resumo: Pseudoplatystoma reticulatum, Leiarius marmoratus e o híbrido resultante do cruzamento entre essas espécies apresentam características zootécnicas interessantes e promissoras para o cultivo em piscicultura. Porém, a larvicultura dessas espécies apresentam altos índices de mortalidade, pois nesse período as larvas não estão totalmente desenvolvidas e não possuem o sistema digestório completamente formado. Pesquisas relacionadas ao desenvolvimento do sistema digestório de larvas tem sido uma ferramenta importante para o conhecimento sobre os períodos de alimentação endógena, exógena e mista. Neste sentido, este trabalho teve como objetivo analisar e comparar as características anatômicas, histológicas e histoquímicas do sistema digestório de Pseudoplatystoma reticulatum, Leiarius marmoratus e do híbrido, nas fases inicias de desenvolvimento após eclosão. As amostras foram fixadas em solução de karnovsky (paraformoldeído 4% + glutaraldeído 2% + tampão fosfato Sorensen 0,1 M, pH 7,2), e processadas para análise anatômica, histológica e histoquímica. As larvas de P. reticulatum, L. marmoratus e híbrido eclodiram 24 horas após a fertilização. As larvas recém-eclodidas apresentaram-se pouco desenvolvidas e com escassez de cromatóforos. A cavidade bucofaríngea pôde ser observada, mas não foi possível diferenciar os componentes do tubo digestivo. As reservas de vitelo foram observadas até o 3º DPE em P. reticulatum e em L. marmoratus e no Híbrido até o 4º DPE. Para os três modelos bio... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Pseudoplatystoma reticulatum, Leiarius marmoratus and the hybrid resulting from the cross between these species show interesting and promising zootechnical characteristics for fish farming. The main bottleneck of larviculture today is the high mortality rate in the early stages of life, because in this period the larvae are not fully developed and do not have a fully formed digestive system. Research related to the development of the digestive system of larvae, has been an important tool for understanding the periods of endogenous, exogenous and mixed feeding. In this sense, this work aimed to analyze and compare the anatomical, histological and histochemical characteristics of the digestive system of Pseudoplatystoma reticulatum, Leiarius marmoratus and the hybrid, in the early stages of development after hatching. The samples were fixed in a karnovsky solution (paraformoldehyde 4% + glutaraldehyde 2% + phosphate buffer Sorensen 0.1 M, pH 7.2), and processed for anatomical, histological and histochemical analysis. The larvae of P. reticulatum, L. marmoratus and hybrid hatched 24 hours after fertilization. The newly hatched larvae were poorly developed, with a shortage of chromatophores. The buccopharyngeal cavity could be observed, but it was not possible to differentiate the components of the digestive tract. Calf reserves were observed until the 3º DPE in P. reticulatum and in L. marmoratus and in the hybrid until the 4º DPE. For the three biological models, the first gobl... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

Humans are extraordinary prosocial beings. No other Great Ape species invests a comparable amount of time and resources into building, maintaining, and repairing social relationships. The degree to which small-scale communities and large-scale societies embrace the human capacity for prosociality and capitalise on human-unique forms of cooperation is variable. The cross-cultural constant, however, is that each individual child undergoes a critical period of prosocial development in the first four years of life. During this period children’s emotions undergo a culture-specific transformation through children’s interactions with adults, siblings, and same-age peers. Studying how emotions shape young children’s social interactions, how they allow children to maintain and repair social relationships, is the developmental psychologist’s study of the psychological origins of human prosociality. This thesis is about studying examples of such so-called prosocial emotions. The main question of the current thesis is: How do emotions regulate children’s social inter- actions and relationships in early ontogeny? Addressing this question requires the assessment of both the internal mechanisms (attention and physiological arousal) as well as the expression (in behaviour or body language) of emotions in young children’s social interactions. At first, I provide a theoretical basis for studying the regulatory function of prosocial emotions in the first four years of children’s development. I suggest that children’s developing prosociality progresses through two distinct phases, one which shapes their attention and physiological arousal to others’ needs in the first two years of life, and subsequently a second phase during which children’s prosocial behaviour emerges and is increasingly regulated by emotions. In contrast to previous work, such a study of emotions as underlying early prosocial development requires broadening the suite of methods through which emotions are objectively measurable and interpretable. The first research aim was to study the development of children’s attention and arousal in response to others’ needs. We found that prosocial attention is a stable phenomenon from toddlerhood through school-age. In both a western and non-western culture, children anticipated how others are best helped. In a clinical comparison study, we found that this anticipatory response was blunted in children with an autism spectrum diagnosis. Young children’s prosocial orientation was not limited to helping contexts but encompassed other domains. Toddlers understood others’ desires and anticipated how those were best met. We further found that two-year toddlers were attentive to same-age peers’ needs and helped a same-age peer in sim- ilar ways and to a similar degree as has been previously reported in studies with child-adult interactions. We further found that toddlers’ attention to others’ needs was not contingent on explicit requests for help. Rather toddlers helped an adult even if helping was anonymous suggesting that toddlers did not help to interact with a competent adult partner. Finally, in a comparative study, we found chimpanzees’ underlying motivation to provide help to be different from that previously documented in young children. Chimpanzees were fastest to complete an action if this resulted in a conspecific’s need being fulfilled but, in contrast to young children, chimpanzees were motivated to carry out the behaviour themselves (which was not the case in non-helping control scenarios). Together, this indicates that a young chil- dren’s prosocial orientation develops during and persists beyond the first two years of life, thus laying the foundation for children’s prosocial behaviour. The second research aim was to study how children’s attention to others’ needs relates to their actual prosocial behaviour. In a first, comparative, study we found that young children regulated their prosocial behaviour more than chimpanzees. Both 3-year-old children and chimpanzees helped others, but children were more strongly motivated to help paternalistically by correcting dysfunctional requests for help that did not align with the requester’s actual need. The implication of these findings is that chimpanzees’ helping is more motivated by concerns to ’get credit’ and comply with others’ request for help whereas children’s helping is based on a, sometimes even paternalistic, concern to see others being helped. In a separate series of studies we developed experimental paradigms that allowed us to mea- sure the underlying emotions through changes in both internal arousal as well as overt body expressions. We found that changes in children’s physiological arousal were predictive of their subsequent helping behaviour. We further studied the function of guilt and gratitude in regulating two- and three-year-olds’ prosocial behaviour. Children’s intrinsic motivation to help an adult changed when they had accidentally caused the adult harm (guilt) or when the adult had previously helped them (gratitude). Specifically, guilt- and gratitude-provoking situations motivated young children to actively provide help. In contrast, and replicating previous work, under conditions without invoked guilt or gratitude, children’s motivation was to see that individual being helped (irrespective of whether they themselves or another adult provided the help). In a separate study we investigated children’s positive emotions, expressed in elevated upper-body posture, resulting from their successful helping behaviour. Children at the age of two years showed a similarly elevated body posture after completing a goal for themselves and after completing an adult’s goal whereas no such elevation was observed when children’s actions did not benefit anyone. Together these findings suggest that emotions invoked in their interactions with others in turn influence children’s motivation to interact, thus serving a regulatory function to repair (guilt) and maintain (gratitude) children’s social relationships. This successful navigation of the social world may contribute to children’s own emotional well-being. In sum, the current thesis explored the developmental origins of prosociality focusing on prosocial emotions that allow already young children to build and maintain functional relationships with adults and peers. The first four years of life give rise to prosocial emotions that critically shape children’s social interactions toward cooperative ends. Together, the re- search presented here adds to our knowledge of the deep ontogenetic roots of human-unique prosociality.:1 Executive summary 1 2 Introduction and background 3 2.1 Children’s prosocial attention and interactions.................... 6 2.2 The regulatory social function of children’s emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.2.1 Children’s emotional response to seeing others needing help . . . . . . . 8 2.2.2 Children’s emotional response to seeing others being helped . . . . . . . 9 3 Theoretical framework and research programs 11 3.1 Revealing the foundation of human prosociality (Theoretical paper 1) . . . . . 11 3.1.1 Precursors and mechanisms........................... 12 3.1.2 Social groups & interaction partners...................... 13 3.1.3 The self in social relationships ......................... 13 3.1.4 The long reach of early development ..................... 14 3.2 ResearchPrograms .................................... 15 3.2.1 Prosocial attention and interactions ...................... 16 3.2.2 The regulatory social function of emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 4 Empirical studies 21 4.1 The development of prosocial attention across two cultures (Study 1) . . . . . . 21 4.1.1 Abstract ...................................... 21 4.1.2 Introduction.................................... 21 4.1.3 Materials and methods.............................. 24 4.1.4 DataAnalysis................................... 26 4.1.5 Results....................................... 28 4.1.6 Discussion..................................... 31 4.2 Prosocial attention in children with an autism spectrum diagnosis (Study 2) . . 35 4.2.1 Abstract ...................................... 35 4.2.2 Introduction.................................... 35 4.2.3 Methods...................................... 38 4.2.4 Data analysis ................................... 40 4.2.5 Results....................................... 44 4.2.6 Discussion..................................... 46 4.3 Desire understanding in 2-year-old children: An eye-tracking study (Study 3) . 50 4.3.1 Abstract ...................................... 50 4.3.2 Introduction.................................... 50 4.3.3 Methods...................................... 53 4.3.4 Results....................................... 57 4.3.5 Discussion..................................... 61 4.4 Toddlers help anonymously (Study4)......................... 65 4.4.1 Abstract ...................................... 65 4.4.2 Introduction.................................... 65 4.4.3 Study1....................................... 66 4.4.4 Study1: Methods................................. 66 4.4.5 Study1: Results.................................. 70 4.4.6 Study1: Discussion................................ 70 4.4.7 Study2....................................... 72 4.4.8 Study2: Method ................................. 72 4.4.9 Study2: Results.................................. 74 4.4.10 General discussion ................................ 75 4.5 Toddlers help a peer (Study5) ............................. 79 4.5.1 Abstract ...................................... 79 4.5.2 Introduction.................................... 79 4.5.3 Method....................................... 81 4.5.4 Results....................................... 86 4.5.5 Discussion..................................... 89 4.6 Chimpanzees are motivated to help others - and to get credit (Study 6) . . . . . 93 4.6.1 Abstract ...................................... 93 4.6.2 Introduction.................................... 93 4.6.3 Study1....................................... 95 4.6.4 Results.......................................100 4.6.5 Study2.......................................102 4.6.6 Results.......................................103 4.6.7 General discussion ................................104 4.7 Chimpanzees comply with requests; Children fulfil others’ needs (Study 7) . . . 106 4.7.1 Abstract ......................................106 4.7.2 Introduction....................................106 4.7.3 General method..................................109 4.7.4 Study1.......................................111 4.7.5 Results.......................................115 4.7.6 Study2.......................................116 4.7.7 Results.......................................119 4.7.8 General discussion ................................119 4.8 Young children’s physiological arousal and their motivation to help (Study 8) . 123 4.8.1 Abstract ......................................123 4.8.2 Introduction....................................123 4.8.3 Methods......................................126 4.8.4 Data analysis ...................................128 4.8.5 Results.......................................130 4.8.6 Discussion.....................................131 4.9 Children’s intrinsic motivation to reconcile after accidental harm (Study 9) . . . 135 4.9.1 Abstract ......................................135 4.9.2 Introduction....................................135 4.9.3 General method..................................137 4.9.4 Study1.......................................142 4.9.5 Study1: Results and discussion ........................145 4.9.6 Study2.......................................146 4.9.7 Study2: Results..................................148 4.9.8 General discussion ................................149 4.10 Toddlers’ intrinsic motivation to return help to their benefactor (Study 10) . . . 152 4.10.1 Abstract ......................................152 4.10.2 Introduction....................................152 4.10.3 Study1:Methods.................................155 4.10.4 Study1:Results..................................161 4.10.5 Study1:Discussion................................163 4.10.6 Study2:Methods.................................164 4.10.7 General discussion ................................167 4.10.8 Conclusion.....................................170 4.11 The fulfillment of others’ needs elevates children’s body posture (Study 11) . . . 171 4.11.1 Abstract ......................................171 4.11.2 Introduction....................................171 4.11.3 Validation study .................................173 4.11.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 4.11.5 Study 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 4.11.6 Study1:Method .................................176 4.11.7 Study1:Results..................................181 4.11.8 Study1:Discussion................................183 4.11.9 Study 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 4.11.10 Study2:Method .................................185 4.11.11 Study 2: Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 4.11.12 General discussion ................................189 5 Integrative discussion and theoretical perspectives 193 5.1 Children’s prosocial attention and interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194 5.1.1 Summary & conclusions.............................194 5.1.2 Future directions .................................195 5.2 Prosocial arousal in children (Theoretical paper 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200 5.2.1 Abstract ......................................200 5.2.2 Introduction....................................200 5.2.3 The phenomenon and the debate........................201 5.2.4 Measuring prosocial arousal ..........................202 5.2.5 Children’s prosocial arousal and intrinsic motivation to help . . . . . . . 204 5.2.6 Looking ahead ..................................205 5.2.7 Conclusion.....................................207 5.3 The regulatory social function of children’s emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207 5.3.1 Summary & conclusions.............................207 5.3.2 Future directions .................................208 5.4 The development of prosocial emotions (Theoretical paper 3) . . . . . . . . . . 211 5.4.1 Abstract ......................................211 5.4.2 Introduction....................................211 5.4.3 The prosocial functions of emotions......................212 5.4.4 General discussion and future directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220 6 Bibliography 227 7 Declaration of originality 255 8 Contribution statement 257

This thesis investigates the variability of ontogenetic maxillary bone modeling patterns in humans (Homo sapiens) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Along with sutural growth, bone modeling is the microscopic process by which bones grow in size and model their shape. It results from the simultaneous cellular activities of bone formation (produced by the osteoblasts) and bone resorption (produced by the osteoclasts) on bone surfaces. The study of these activities can bring new insights into our understanding of maxillary, and, more generally, facial ontogeny. However, bone modeling variability remains poorly understood. Using surface histology, we developed quantitative methods to objectively compare and visualize bone modeling patterns. In parallel, geometric morphometric methods were used to capture and quantify maxillary shape changes. Both methods were used for the first time together in an integrative approach. A large sample of H. sapiens individuals ranging from birth to adulthood, and originating from three geographically distinct areas (Greenland, Western Europe and South Africa), was used to infer the variation in maxillary bone modeling at the intraspecific level. We found that human populations express similar bone modeling patterns, with only subtle differences in the location of bone resorption. Moreover, differences in developmental trajectories were identified. This suggests that population differences in maxillary morphology stem from changes in timing and/or rates of the osteoblastic and osteoclastic activities. Adult individuals show similar maxillary bone modeling patterns to subadults, with both cellular activities expressed at reduced intensities. All human populations express high amounts of bone resorption throughout ontogeny, and high inter-individual variation. In contrast, we find low amounts of bone resorption and a low inter-individual variation in chimpanzees, which results in the anterior projection of their maxilla. In chimpanzees, resorption is predominant in the premaxilla, which has been found in some species of Australopithecus and Paranthropus. Other similarities in the location of bone resorption, mostly close to the sutures, suggest the preservation of shared ontogenetic patterns between the humans and chimpanzees. The low intraspecific variation in the location of bone resorption found in both species suggests that species-specific bone modeling patterns can be inferred from a limited number of individuals. This will allow future studies to discuss the bone modeling patterns in fossils for which subadult individuals are scarce.

The presence of soldier caste is an important synapomorphy of group Isoptera. The adaptation of this caste to defense tasks is more than obvious and some of their morphological or even behavioral adaptations can be quite impressive. The polyethism in termites is relatively well known inbetween rather worker caste. If there are such a studies pointing at polyethism in soldiers, they are connected with soldier polymorphism. The morphological differences are of course important stimulus to role separation. The goal of this thesis was to examine the polyethism in the species of the termite with monomorphic soldiers - Prorhinotermes simplex. I did behavioral experiments with it in enclosed arenas, recorded on specific days. The data shows, that there are differences inbetween individuals and it would be benefical to invest further time to subsequent studies. The thesis bring out new point of view to defensive behaviour of termites and suggests, that even termite species without polymorphic species may have soldiers with different tasks. Besides I managed to map ontogeny of soldier behaviour in the first two weeks after moulting from presoldier instar. Key words: Isoptera, polyethism, soldiers, ontogeny, defensive behaviour Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

This thesis deals with the ontogeny of trilobites and agnostids from the Cambrian of the Skryje-Týřovice and Příbram-Jince basins (Barrandian area, Bohemian Massif). Thesis is presented as a compilation of four papers that were published in scientific peer-reviewed journals. The introduction of the thesis serves as a general overview of the trilobite post- embryonic development and connects all published papers together. All four papers presented here are focussed on modern description of the post-embryonic development of Sao hirsuta, Ptychopariida sp. A, Ptychopariida sp. B, Ptychopariida sp. C, Ellipsocephalus hoffi, Ellipsocephalus polytomus, Hydrocephalus carens and Ecca- paradoxides pusillus. In addition, a discussion about the life-history strategies of early developmental trilobite stages is presented. It has been suggested that Sao hirsuta and Ptychopariida sp. A had benthic protaspides and that the early ontogenetic stages of Ptychopariida sp. B, Eccaparadoxides pusillus and Hydrocephalus carens were likely lecithortophic. Consequently, it has been documented that species with benthic protaspides show a strongly restricted geographic distribution and that lecithotrophic taxa seem to be associated with higher latitude areas. The developmental patterns of Ellipsocephalus hoffi and...