A medição de superfícies através de sistemas óticos de precisão é aplicável em diversas áreas da engenharia naval e oceânica: levantamento de geometria de casco para a determinação da estabilidade estática de embarcações in loco, verificação de processos construtivos, recuperação de planos de linha originais perdidos, arqueologia naval, inspeção de cabos e estruturas submersas, planejamento de rota de mergulho, entre outras. Os dispositivos óticos de precisão disponíveis são de alto custo, e a necessidade de se desenvolver um dispositivo de baixo custo se faz presente. O propósito deste trabalho é a criação de metodologia de obtenção de superfície através de procedimento prático experimental. A varredura tridimensional de superfície é feita experimentalmente através da utilização de leitor tridimensional a laser. A contribuição deste trabalho é de promover um conceito teórico a uma prova experimental do conceito, utilizando-se de recursos da automação e robótica, e programação com linguagem e software aplicativo de baixo custo e largamente disponível. / The surface measurement using precision optics is applicable in many areas of naval engineering: survey of hull geometry to determine the static stability of vessels on the spot, verification of construction processes, recovery of lost original hull plans, naval archeology, inspection of underwater structures and cables, route planning diving, among others. The precision optical devices available are expensive, and the need to develop a low-cost device is present. The purpose of this work is to create a methodology for obtaining surfaces through practical experimental procedure. The three-dimensional scan surface is made experimentally by using three-dimensional laser reader. The contribution of this work is to promote a theoretical concept to an experimental proof of concept, using the resources of automation and robotics, and software programming language and application of lowcost and widely available.

Birefringence measurements are of great importance in a plethora of applications spanning from biology to optical communications. Birefringence measurements of nerve-fiber layers have emerged as an important diagnostic technique for early detection of glaucoma. Stress-induced birefringence in optical devices affects their performances by causing Polarization-Mode Dispersion (PMD) and Polarization-Dependent Loss (PDL). Stress-relaxation constitutes a key phenomenon governing the fabrication of some optical devices such as Long-Period Fiber Gratings (LPFGs). This drives the need to develop accurate optical instrumentation techniques to evaluate form and stress-induced birefringence. This thesis deals with the development of new high-accuracy techniques for the characterization of stress-induced birefringence in optical devices. The new Two-Waveplate Compensator (TWC) technique is presented for single-point retardation measurements. It is extensively compared theoretically and experimentally to existing techniques including the Snarmont and Brace-Khler techniques. The Phase-Stepping Two-Waveplate Retarder (PSTWR) is also presented for high-accuracy measurements of retardation magnitude and orientation. The Colorimetry-Based Retardation Method (CBRM) is presented to measure retardation using white-light interference colors. The technique is implemented using a polarization microscope and a spectrophotometer. The TWC and the Brace-Khler methods are implemented for full-field retardation measurements using a polarization microscope. Their accuracies are quantified over the entire field-of-view for small retardations. They are applied to the stress-induced birefringence imaging of LPFGs and polymer pillar waveguides. The TWC technique achieves an accuracy of 0.06 nm and a sensitivity of 0.07 nm. The Brace- Khler technique achieves an accuracy of 0.04 nm and a sensitivity of 0.09 nm. The spatial resolution of both techniques is 0.45 and #61549;m. A Fourier-based algorithm is presented to compute the inverse Abel transform relating the retardation to the axial residual stress profile in optical fibers. It is used to calculate the residual stress profiles of single-mode fibers from full-field retardation measurements with the TWC and Brace- Khler techniques. The stress profiles computed in this work are in very good agreement with previously reported results in the literature. The TWC technique produces the most accurate stress measurements. The TWC technique is used to investigate the stress-relaxation phenomena in LPFGs fabricated using CO2 laser irradiations.

In this work, two optical devices, organic photovoltaics (OPVs) and optical fibers, are introduced. Each of these devices have performance drawbacks. The major drawbacks of organic photovoltaics is their low absorption rate due to bandgap mismatch with the solar spectrum as well as poor charge carrier mobility and short exciton diffusion length. In order to overcome some of these drawbacks and increase the efficiency of OPVs, we use plasmonic gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). We report 30% increase in the efficiency of bulk-heterojunction OPV after incorporation of 50 nm AuNPs. The optical, electrical, and thermal impacts of AuNPs on the performance of PVs have been investigated experimentally and using Lumerical Solutions and COMSOL Multiphysics® simulation packages. The major contributions of AuNPs is causing near field enhancement and increasing the absorption of the structure by 65%, decreasing the extracted carrier density by quenching the excitons, changing the workfunction of the structure, as well as increasing the temperature of their surrounded medium when exited at their plasmon resonance frequency. Furthermore, one of the challenges in devices made from optical fibers such as wavelength division multiplexing systems, is self-phase modulation (SPM) which is a nonlinear phenomenon. We introduce a novel method to remove the SPM in liquid core optical fibers (LCOF) using nonlinear organic chromophores with a negative third-order susceptibility. The idea of this work is to eliminate the effective nonlinear refractive index that the optical pulses are experiencing while propagating through the LCOF. Further, a novel method is introduced to characterize the third-order optical nonlinear susceptibility of organic chromophores in LCOF system. The presented method is simple, and can be extended to the characterization of other nanoscale particles such as quantum dots and plasmonic metal nanoparticles in solutions. Finally, a convenient method is presented that enables researchers to investigate the mechanisms behind photobleaching of various materials. The photostability of materials is of great importance for their acceptance in commercial systems such as organic photovoltaics, electro-optic (EO) modulators and switches, etc. This method is based on the simultaneous detection of different signals such as second-, and third-harmonic generations as well as two-, and three-photon excitation fluorescence using multi-photon microscopy.

A medição de superfícies através de sistemas óticos de precisão é aplicável em diversas áreas da engenharia naval e oceânica: levantamento de geometria de casco para a determinação da estabilidade estática de embarcações in loco, verificação de processos construtivos, recuperação de planos de linha originais perdidos, arqueologia naval, inspeção de cabos e estruturas submersas, planejamento de rota de mergulho, entre outras. Os dispositivos óticos de precisão disponíveis são de alto custo, e a necessidade de se desenvolver um dispositivo de baixo custo se faz presente. O propósito deste trabalho é a criação de metodologia de obtenção de superfície através de procedimento prático experimental. A varredura tridimensional de superfície é feita experimentalmente através da utilização de leitor tridimensional a laser. A contribuição deste trabalho é de promover um conceito teórico a uma prova experimental do conceito, utilizando-se de recursos da automação e robótica, e programação com linguagem e software aplicativo de baixo custo e largamente disponível. / The surface measurement using precision optics is applicable in many areas of naval engineering: survey of hull geometry to determine the static stability of vessels on the spot, verification of construction processes, recovery of lost original hull plans, naval archeology, inspection of underwater structures and cables, route planning diving, among others. The precision optical devices available are expensive, and the need to develop a low-cost device is present. The purpose of this work is to create a methodology for obtaining surfaces through practical experimental procedure. The three-dimensional scan surface is made experimentally by using three-dimensional laser reader. The contribution of this work is to promote a theoretical concept to an experimental proof of concept, using the resources of automation and robotics, and software programming language and application of lowcost and widely available.

Neste trabalho foi desenvolvido um estudo sistemático das propriedades estruturais, mecânicas e ópticas de filmes de carbeto de silício amorfo hidrogenado (a-Si1-xCx:H) produzidos pela técnica de deposição química a vapor assistida por plasma (PECVD) a baixas temperaturas (320°C), utilizando silana (SiH4) e metano (CH4) como gases precursores do silício e carbono, com a finalidade de avaliar sua aplicabilidade em processos de microfabricação. Foram depositadas duas séries de filmes de a-Si1-xCx:H, com e sem diluição de hidrogênio da mistura gasosa, variando alguns parâmetros, como potência de RF, concentração de metano e fluxo de silana. Os filmes depositados com a mistura gasosa diluída em hidrogênio apresentaram valores maiores de módulo de elasticidade, dureza, gap óptico e índice de refração, comparados com os filmes depositados sem a adição de hidrogênio; no entanto esses filmes apresentaram também valores maiores de stress residual, ocasionando deformações e em alguns casos a quebra das microestruturas fabricadas. No caso das amostras depositados sem a adição de hidrogênio na mistura gasosa, os filmes com conteúdo de carbono maior que 45% depositados com baixa densidade de potência (50 mW.cm-2) apresentaram baixos valores de stress residual compressivo (menores que 60 MPa) e, as microestruturas fabricadas com eles mostraram que o material possui uma superfície livre de defeitos e uma excelente aderência ao substrato, mostrando a viabilidade de poder utilizá-lo como material estrutural e de mascaramento em processos de microfabricação. Além disso, esses filmes são transparentes para comprimentos de onda acima de 600 nm na região visível do espectro eletromagnético, apresentando-o como um material promissório para a fabricação de guias de onda. Finalmente, com o incremento da potência de RF para 100 W na deposição do filme quase estequiométrico com a mistura gasosa não diluída em hidrogênio, conseguiu-se duplicar a taxa de deposição para aproximadamente 12 nm/min, incorporando uma maior quantidade de carbono (~57%), porém também aumento o valor do stress residual compressivo para ~267 MPa. No entanto, as estruturas suspensas fabricadas com este material não apresentaram deformações notáveis. / In this work a study of structural, mechanical and optical properties of hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide (a-Si1-xCx:H) films, obtained by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) at low temperatures (320°C), using silane (SiH4) and methane (CH4) as a gaseous precursors of silicon and carbon, respectively is performed, intending to assess their suitability in microfabrication processes. Two series of a-Si1-xCx:H films were deposited, with and without hydrogen dilution of the gaseous mixture, varying parameters, such as RF power, methane concentration and silane flow. The films deposited with hydrogen diluted gaseous mixture showed higher values of elastic modulus, hardness, optical gap and refractive index, compared with films produced without hydrogen dilution; however these films present higher values of compressive residual stress, causing deformations and in some cases cracks in the microstructures utilizing these films as structural material. In the case of the films deposited without hydrogen dilution of the gaseous mixture, those with carbon contents higher than 45% deposited at low power densities (50 mW.cm-2) presented lower values of compressive residual stress (lower than 60 MPa), and the microstructures fabricated with these materials do not show defects in the surface and have a good adherence to the substrate, demonstrating the feasibility of using these materials as structural and masking materials in microfabrication processes. Moreover, these samples are transparent to wavelengths larger than 600 nm in the visible range of the spectrum, making it suitable to the fabrication of waveguides. Finally, with the increase in the RF power to 100 W in the deposition process without hydrogen dilution a sample close to stoichiometry presented an increase in the deposition rate to approximately 12 nm/min and in the carbon content (~57%); however the compressive residual stress also increased. In spite of that, the microstructures fabricated with this material do not show notable deformations.

The author explores absorptive and refractive optical nonlinearities at 1.06 [mu]m in bulk, semi-insulating, undoped GaAs with a particular emphasis on the influence of the native deep-level defect known as EL2. Picosecond pump-probe experimental technique is used to study the speed, magnitude, and origin of the absorptive and refractive optical nonlinearities and to characterize the dynamics of the optical excitation of EL2 in three distinctly different undoped, semi-insulating GaAs samples. Intense optical excitation of these materials leads to the redistribution of charge among the EL2 states resulting in an absorptive nonlinearity due to different cross sections for electron and hole generation through this level. This absorptive nonlinearity is used in conjunction with the linear optical properties of the material and independent information regarding the EL2 concentration to extract the cross section ratio [sigma][sub p]/[sigma][sub e] [approx equal]0.8, where [sigma][sub p](e) is the absorption cross section for hole (electron) generation from EL2[sup +] (EL2[sup 0]). The picosecond pump-probe technique can be used to determine that EL2/EL2[sup +]density ratio in an arbitrary undoped, semi-insulating GaAs sample. The author describes the use of complementary picosecond pump-probe techniques that are designed to isolate and quantify cumulative and instantaneous absorptive and refractive nonlinear processes. Numerical simulations of the measurements are achieved by solving Maxwell equations with the material equations in a self-consistent manner. The numerical analysis together with the experimental data allows extraction of a set of macroscopic nonlinear optical parameters in undoped GaAs. The nonlinearities in this material have been used to construct three proof-of-principle nonlinear optical devices for use at 1.06 [mu]m: (1) a weak beam amplifier, (2) a polarization rotation optical switch, and (3) optical limiters.

<div>Integrated optical phased arrays (OPAs) have gained popularity for achieving beam steering with no moving parts and potential high speed and small beam divergence angle. These characteristics are crucial for applications like free-space communication and light detection and ranging (LiDAR), a key component in autonomous driving. Two main aspects that affect the performance of an integrated OPA are discussed: high power handling and large beam steering range.</div><div><br></div><div>High emission power from the OPA is desirable for long range detection applications. Silicon is broadly used in integrated OPA designs as it allows for structures with a more compact footprint. However, its power-handling capability is limited by the two-photon absorption of the material, resulting in higher loss and potential damage at high input power levels. In this work, high power delivery into free space is realized by using a silicon nitride (SiN) and silicon hybrid platform. SiN components are used to direct and split high input power into smaller portions and coupled into silicon components for a more compact emitter array.</div><div><br></div><div>In order to achieve a full 180-degree beam steering range with aliasing-free operation, the pitch of a periodic emitter array is required to be half of the operating wavelength or less. At such a small pitch, evanescent coupling between adjacent emitters causes strong crosstalk. We demonstrate the optical phased array based on uniform half-wavelength spaced grating emitter array. Two-dimensional beam confinement and a record-high aliasing-free beam steering field-of-view of 135 degrees from grating emitter are measured from a 32 channel SiN/Si hybrid OPA. Evanescent coupling between waveguides are suppressed by metamaterial-based <b>e</b>xtreme <b>ski</b>n-<b>d</b>epth (e-skid) waveguides. The e-skid waveguides utilize an alternating air-silicon multi-fin side cladding. The high index contrast of those sub-wavelength ridges provides strong anisotropy, which leads to faster decay of the evanescent wave for transverse electric (TE) input modes, thus limiting evanescent coupling between closely spaced waveguides.</div><div><br></div><div>Furthermore, we extend the concept of the half-wavelength-pitched emitter array to the design of a two-dimensional end-fire OPA. This OPA can potentially achieve 180-degree by 180-degree full-range beam steering with no grating lobes by having a half-wavelength emitter pitch in both dimensions. The design of a broadband 8 by 8 silicon photonics switch based on the half-wavelength-pitched emitter array with low path-dependent loss (PDL) is also discussed.</div>

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Die vorliegende Dissertation befasst sich mit der Anwendung und Weiterentwicklung der CARS -Mikroskopie (CARS, (Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering)) zur Lokalisierung von Wirkstoffen in Zellen. Aufgrund einer C-Deuterierung dieser Wirkstoffe werden diese intrinsisch markiert und lassen sich nicht-invasiv mit Hilfe Raman-basierter Mikrospektroskopietechniken von Zellbestandteilen unterscheiden. Diese Arbeit widmet sich der für biomedizinische Anwendungen zu geringen Sensitivität und zu hohen Komplexität des experimentellen Aufbaus für CARS-Mikroskopie. Auf der Anwendungsseite wurdenzunächst mittels quantitativer Raman- und CARS- Mikroskopie die Detektionsgrenzen C-deuterierter Stoffe bestimmt. Anhand von mit deuterierter Fettsäure inkubierter Makrophagen wurde chemischer Kontrast in Zellen qualitativ gezeigt. Die Weiterentwicklung des experimentellen Aufbaus erfolgte durch den Einsatz von Impulsformern. Diese können das Anregungslicht in Amplitude und Phase formen und somit den Schwingungskontrast optimieren und den experimentellen Aufbau vereinfachen. Verwendet wurden dabei sowohl ein spatial light modulator (SLM) als auch ein akustooptischer Modulator (AOM), die in dieser Arbeit miteinander verglichen werden. Mit Hilfe einer photonischen Kristallfaser als spektral breite Lichtquelle und des AOM als spektraler Filter konnte der Aufbau vereinfacht und ein Schema zur Implementierung von Quasi-Multiplex CARS-Mikroskopie aufgebaut werden, welches ein schnelles Schalten zwischen verschiedenen bildgebenden Raman-Banden erlaubt. Die automatisierte Optimierung des Schwingungskontrasts erfolgte schließlich durch den Einsatz des SLM, der mit Hilfe eines selbstlernenden Algorithmus den Schwingungskontrast von CARS-Bildern um bis zu 160 % verbessern konnte.