Organic photovoltaics (OPVs) offer the prospect of inexpensive processing compared with conventional crystalline semiconductor cells. These cells are still lower in efficiency than their inorganic counterparts, in part because a detailed understanding of the role that interfaces play in these devices is lacking. The electronic properties of the surface of the common transparent electrode Indium:Tin Oxide (ITO) have been studied both on a macroscopic and nanoscopic scale, and the interface between ITO and organic materials has been studied on a macroscopic scale as well. Little work has been done on the nanoscopic properties of the ITO/organic interface. This dissertation introduces a new conducting-probe atomic force microscope (CP-AFM) technique, Scanning Current Spectroscopy (SCS), for probing the nanoscopic lateral variation in the electronic properties of this interface, and demonstrates its utility by examining the ITO/copperphthalocyanine (CuPc) interface. SCS demonstrates large lateral variations in the hole collection efficiency at that interface on a nanometer length scale, and that the distribution of these variations is affected by ITO pretreatment. Measurements on OPVs demonstrate that the performance of these devices is dependant on the nanoscopic lateral variation in surface properties that SCS measures, and that in the case of the ITO/CuPcinterface SCS explains the observed device behavior better than techniques that yield macroscopic average electronic properties, such as photoelectron spectroscopy. Additionally, this dissertation discusses advances made in the design of an integrated optical refractive index sensor. The sensor uses organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and OPVs as integrated light-sources and detectors on top of a slab waveguide substrate. The platform offers potentially high sensitivities to refractive index changes (and the selective binding of chemical and biological analytes), and is amenable to largescale integration for on-chip multiplexed detection. The refractive index response has been demonstrated previously, but the performance was limited by electrical noise and OLED drift. The use of different absorbing species in the OPV, integration of multiplesensors on a single substrate, addition of a reference channel to monitor OLED drift andthe use of lock-in amplification for signal processing allow the sensor to detect changesof 10-4 refractive index units.

No description available.

Polymer nanocomposites are an important research interest in the area of engineering and functional materials, including the search for more environmentally materials for renewable energy and materials. The ability to analyze and optimize morphology is crucial to realizing their potential, since the distribution of materials in the composite strongly influences its properties. This dissertation presents research into three different polymer nanocomposite systems with three different applications that underscore the need to understand and control the composite morphology to succeed. The first project details work on development of a copolymer compatibilizer to enhance the dispersion of the plant-derived biopolymer lignin in composite blends with polystyrene. The copolymer was designed with hydroxyl functionality that can form hydrogen bonds with lignin, and the effect of modulating the density of these groups was investigated, both on bulk dispersion and interfacial mixing. The second project presented concerns resolving the interfacial morphology of composite bulk heterojunction organic photovoltaic devices based on a polythiophene-based photoactive polymer and a modified carbon fullerene, which are archetypical of the highest performing cells yet produced. Neutron reflectivity was extensively employed to probe the interfacial width and degree of intermixing between the components to elucidate the morphological impact on device performance. The final project involves modifying nanoscale cellulose crystallites, dubbed nanowhiskers, by replacing a portion of the hydroxyl groups with acetate groups to improve their dispersion in polymethyl methacrylate. Neutron reflectivity was again employed to probe the interface between the two materials to observe and quantify intermixing.

In recent years, organic photovoltaics (OPVs) have attracted considerable attention as a potential source of renewable energy over traditional materials due to their light weight, low production cost, mechanically stability and compatibility with flexible substrates in roll to roll processing for high volume production. In the OPVs interface plays an important role in determining the performance of the device. Interface signifies formation of efficient contact with electrode, film, and transport of free charge carrier, which results in better performance in the device. Interface engineering also helps in improving mechanical robustness of the device. Hence, understanding of interface, modification and its evaluation is important in fabrication of efficient device. In this thesis interface is modified such that the performance of the device can be improved (chapter 3 and chapter 4). In Chapter 5 and chapter 6 interface is modified such that device can be fabricated on uncommon substrate. Fabrication of device on uncommon substrates (fiber reinforced plastic and flexible glass substrate), has unique challenges. In chapter 5 and chapter 6, we look at how interface is modified to overcome the challenges associated and also understand the role of interface in improving the performance of device on such substrates is discussed. In Chapter 1 we discuss about working of organic solar cells and the challenges associated in device fabrication. Understanding of interface to overcome challenges associated is explained. It also covers brief introduction to the succeeding chapters discussed in the thesis and its recent developments. To understand the properties of interface and to analyze device performance various characterization techniques have been used are discussed in chapter 2. This chapter also covers the materials and general device fabrication techniques used in this thesis. In chapter 3, a narrow bandgap (NBG) polymer used as a near IR sensitizer in P3HT: PCBM blend. Since, P3HT with a band gap of ~1.9 eV, the commonly used p-type material absorbs approximately ~25 % of incident light. Hence, MP2 (NBG polymer) is used along with P3HT: PCBM in active layer to form a ternary blend, which helps in increased absorption. Basic properties of MP2 are evaluated using UV-visible spectroscopy, differential scanning calaorimetry(DSC), thermogravimetric analyser (TGA), gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and photoluminescence (PL) techniques. To evaluate enhanced absorption of ternary UV-visible spectroscopy is carried out. Charge transfer from one moiety to other in ternary blend is evaluated using PL and Ttime resolved microwave conductivity (TRMC). Morphology of the ternary is assessed using atomic force microscope (AFM) and structural characterization is carried out by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Performance of the device is evaluated by current-voltage (J-V) characterizations. Further improved performance is supported by external quantum efficiency (EQE). Charge extraction with linear increasing voltage (CELIV) of the device is done to evaluate the recombination mechanism in the device and to assess the performance of the device. One-dimensional (1D) ZnO nanostructures provide direct paths for charge transport, and also offer large interfacial area to make them an ideal electron transport layer. In chapter 4 highly aligned ZnO nanorods is used as electron transport layer in OPV. Growth of ZnO nanorods is two-step processes, growing seed layer and growing ZnO nanorods from hydrothermal process using an appropriate seed layer. Two different soft-chemical solution- growth methods (upward and downward) are developed to fabricate self-assembled, oriented ZnO nanorods. Substrate mounting, surface properties and optical transmittance are optimized by varying the nanorods growth conditions. Further the ZnO nanorods are UV ozone treated and its effect on performance of nanostructured buffer layer based device is evaluated. In Chapter 5 OPV is fabricated on an opaque FRP substrate. Fabrication of OPV device on opaque substrate plastic is unique and hence understanding various properties is vital. Such devices fabrication require bottom up approach, with transparent electrode as the top electrode and metal electrode on the surface of FRP. FRP has inherent rough surface of about few microns RMS roughness. In order to reduce the roughness of the substrate FRP was planarized. The planarized layer is chosen, such that it chemically binds with the substrate. The chemical interaction between substrate and planarizing coating is evaluated by FTIR and Raman spectroscopy. The binding of planarized layer and FRP is evaluated using nanoscratch technique and surface energies are studied using contact angle measurements. In addition, adhesion properties of the metal electrodes, which are deposited on planarized FRP are evaluated using nanoscratch technique. Fabrication of OPV requires a top transparent electrode. Simple spin coating technique is used to optimize the top electrode. The property of top electrode is evaluated using UV-visible spectroscopy for transmittance, and sheet resistance of the electrode is characterized. OPV device is fabricated on planarized FRP substrate using optimized top transparent electrode and its PV properties is evaluated. Performance of the device is evaluated for two different bottom electrodes and further performance of device is enhanced using buffer layers. Usually flexible OPVs are fabricated on plastic substrate such as PET, PEN. However they are not structurally stable at high temperatures and have high oxygen and moisture Permeability. In Chapter 6 Organic based photovoltaic devices were fabricated on flexible glass. Flexible glass has high strength and it is also known for low oxygen and moisture permeability. Fabrication of device on flexible glass has never been done before and hence, generation of data is necessary for commercialization of the technology. Device fabrication is optimized by using two different transparent conducting layers (ITO- sputter deposited, PEDOT: PSS-solution processed) and device performance was evaluated for both. Since the substrate is flexible in nature understanding the performance of the device during flexing is important. For this 2-parallel plate flexural apparatus is fabricated for in-situ measurements along with current voltage measurements. These devices are flexed cyclically and performance of device is evaluated. Therefore, work discussed in the thesis show by modifying the interface of the device, and understanding various interfaces of the device is crucial for improving the performance of the device. Also by engineering the interface, devices can be fabricated on various types of substrate.

<p>Utilizing the power of Monte Carlo simulations, a novel, semi-empirical method for investigating the performance of organic photovoltaics (OPVs) in resonant infrared, matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation (RIR-MAPLE) films is explored. Emulsion-based RIR-MAPLE offers a unique and powerful alternative to solution processing in depositing organic materials for use in solar cells: in particular, its usefulness in controlling the nanoscale morphology of organic thin films and the potential for creating novel hetero-structures make it a suitable experimental backdrop for investigating trends through simulation and gaining a better understanding of how different thin film characteristics impact OPV device performance.</p><p>The work presented in this dissertation explores the creation of a simulation tool that relies heavily on measureable properties of RIR-MAPLE films that impact efficiency and can be used to inform film deposition and dictate the paths for future improvements in OPV devices. The original nanoscale implementation of the Monte Carlo method for investigating OPV performance is transformed to enable direct comparison between simulation and experimental external quantum efficiency results. Next, a unique microscale formulation of the Dynamic Monte Carlo (DMC) model is developed based on the observable, fundamental differences between the morphologies of RIR-MAPLE and solution-processed bulk heterojunction (BHJ) films. This microscale model enables us to examine the sensitivity of device performance to various structural and electronic properties of the devices. Specifically, using confocal microscopy, we obtain an average microscale feature size for the RIR-MAPLE P3HT:PC61BM (1:1) BHJ system that represents a strategic starting point for utilizing the DMC as an empirical tool.</p><p>Building on this, the RIR-MAPLE P3HT:PC61BM OPV system is studied using input simulation parameters obtained from films with different material ratios and overall device structures based on characterization techniques such as grazing incidence-wide angle X-ray scattering (GI-WAXS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The results from the microscale DMC simulation compare favorably to experimental data and allow us to articulate a well-informed critique on the strengths and limitations of the model as a predictive tool. The DMC is then used to analyze a different RIR-MAPLE BHJ system: PCPDTBT:PC71BM, where the deposition technique itself is investigated for differences in the primary solvents used during film deposition. </p><p>Finally, a multi-scale DMC model is introduced where morphology measurements taken at two different size scales, as well as structural and electrical characterization, provide a template that mimics the operation of OPVs. This final, semi-empirical tool presents a unique simulation opportunity for exploring the different properties of RIR-MAPLE deposited OPVs, their effects on OPV performance and potential design routes for improving device efficiencies.</p> / Dissertation

Um dos grandes desafios do século XXI está na produção de energia limpa e renovável, já que a demanda mundial por energia continuará crescendo, assim como a necessidade de despoluir o planeta e de diminuir a emissão dos gases do efeito estufa. Nesse contexto, a conversão de energia solar em elétrica coloca-se como uma excelente alternativa, e com isso a dos dispositivos fotovoltaicos. A tecnologia fotovoltaica baseada no silício e em outros semicondutores orgânicos encontra-se em estágio relativamente avançado, porém o custo de produção e de manutenção a proíbe em uso de grande escala. Mais recentemente, iniciaram-se pesquisas com filmes de semicondutores orgânicos, e a rápida melhora na performance dessas células solares a coloca como promissora ao mercado fotovoltaico. Em nosso trabalho, realizamos estudos sobre a performance de dispositivos fotovoltaicos orgânicos baseados na estrutura de heterojunção, estudando a influência de vários parâmetros na performance dos dispositivos. Usamos como camada ativa para nossos dispositivos o poli(3-hexiltiofeno) (P3HT) regiorregular, que é um polímero condutor de gap eletrônico em torno de 1,8 eV misturado ao [6,6]-fenil-C61-ácido butírico-metil ester (PCBM). Essa mistura é apropriada à dissociação dos éxcitons gerados nas cadeias poliméricas pelos fótons absorvidos porque, sendo o PCBM muito eletronegativo, ele captura o elétron do éxciton antes do processo natural de recombinação. Como esse fenômeno ocorre em todo o volume da camada ativa, o dispositivo leva o nome de heterojunção de volume. A estrutura básica que usamos foi de ITO/P3HT-PCBM/Al, isto é, o ITO como eletrodo transparente e bom injetor de buracos e o alumínio como eletrodo injetor de elétrons. Outros dispositivos foram feitos adicionando uma camada transportadora de buracos entre o ITO e o polímero ativo, o Poli(3,4-etileno dióxido-tiofeno):poliestireno-sulfonado (PEDOT:PSS) e/ou cálcio (Ca) entre a camada de alumínio e o polímero. Verificamos que a performance do dispositivo fotovoltaico é bastante alterada quando mediante o contato utilizado, a espessura da camada ativa e a temperatura em que o tratamento térmico é realizado. Investigou-se também, os mecanismos de injeção, transporte e geração de portadores sob variação de temperatura, no intervalo de 90 à 330K. Foi mostrado que, mediante a variação da temperatura, a corrente de curto circuito (JSC), é governada principalmente pela mobilidade dos portadores. A eficiência dos dispositivos desenvolvidos neste trabalho é comparável aos principais valores obtidos na atualidade. Para obtenção destes resultados, foi necessária intensa pesquisa em processamento, principalmente mantendo todas as etapas de fabricação em atmosfera controlada. / One big challenge of the humanity along the 21st Century is to produce energy based on clean and renewable sources. The energy consumption certainly will increase, as well as the necessity in decreasing the emission of greenhouse gases. In this context, solar energy becomes an important alternative for the production of electric energy, in particular, that of photovoltaic devices. Photovoltaics made of silicon and of other inorganic semiconductors are already available, but due to the high cost is not an alternative to produce energy in a large scale. More recently, the organic photovoltaics, due to their quick progress, have becoming as promising technology for the solar energy market. In this work, we studied bulk heterojunction organic photovoltaics, varying several parameters and its influence on the device performance. We used regio-regular poli(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT), that has an electronic gap close to 1.8 eV, mixed with [6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM). PCBM acts in order to dissociate the photogenerated exciton because, being highly electronegative, it captures the electron form the exciton before the recombination process. We used as basic structure the ITO/P3HT-PCBM/Al. ITO as transparent electrode and injector of holes, and aluminum as the electrons injector electrode. In other devices we added a thin layer of Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS), as hole transport layer and/or calcium (Ca) between the Al and the polymer. We verify that the device performance changes considerably with the insertion of such layers, and with the thickness of the active layer and the annealing treatment. We also investigated phenomena related to injection, generation and transport of charge carriers, in the 90-330 K temperature range. We showed that the temperature is the main factor that governs the short-circuit current (JSC). It is important to remark that our devices exhibited similar efficiency compared to that of the literature.

L’utilisation des nanotubes de carbone (CNT) dans les cellules photovoltaïques (PV) se limitent à leur application comme électrodes ou comme dopant dans la couche active à cause de leur conductivité extrêmement élevée provocant des courts-circuits au sein de la cellule. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, nous avons proposé et validé un nouveau concept consistant à développer les SWNT comme matériaux actifs accepteurs alternatifs au PCBM (dérivé de fullerène) pour le photovoltaïque organique.Nous avons développé une voie de synthèse chimique basée sur la fonctionnalisation contrôlée des SWNT et la quantification de leur degré de fonctionnalisation. Ce nouveau concept permettra l’élaboration des SWNT « sur mesure » avec des conductivités et des propriétés optiques et électrochimiques modulables et adéquats avec les propriétés requise pour une intégration dans les dispositifs photovoltaïques en hétérojonctions avec les polymères pi-conjugués donneurs commerciaux.Il a été mis en évidence grâce aux caractérisations des propriétés finales des SWNT synthétisés que la conductivité, l’absorption dans l’UV-visible et les propriétés électrochimiques évoluent graduellement selon deux modes en fonction du degré de fonctionnalisation. De plus, la fonctionnalisation contrôlée des SWNT induit un effet dispersant permettant de faciliter leur intégration dans les dispositifs PV en utilisant les technologies de mise en œuvre par voie solvant existantes comme l’impression par jet d’encre ou roll-to-roll l’élaboration des couches minces par voie solvant. La preuve de ce concept a été validée grâce aux tests en cellules PV avec un polymère standard commercial P3HT et un polymère à faible gap optique synthétisé. / Controlled modulation of intrinsic functional (absorption, band gap, conductivity) and physico-chemical properties (dispersability, solvent-processability) of CNTs could broaden up their application potential in nanotechnology. However, it has been an ambitious synthetic goal for more than a decade. In this work, we developed an efficient methodology to do so in a mastered manner on single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT). It involves the meticulous functionalization based on gradual formation of covalent aryl bonds. It was proven that, the intrinsic electrical conductivity, optical and electrochemical properties of the functionalized SWNTs could be gradually modulated in two steps depending on the functionalization degree. The so- controlled covalent functionalization was the basic synthetic technique to make SWNT easier to manipulate and tolerably soluble, with modulated electrical and electrochemical properties, so that the performances in photovoltaic cells were unusually appreciated. Unsorted functionalized SWNTs were employed in organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells as electron acceptors or dopants with commercial polymer (P3HT) and novel, synthesized low bandgap copolymer, respectively.

Dans une configuration optimale, la couche photo-active d’une cellule solaire organique forme une hétérojonction volumique entre un matériau donneur et un matériau accepteur d’électrons. Cette morphologie optimale se trouve dans un état thermodynamique métastable. En cours de fonctionnement, l’absorption incidente provoque une élévation de la tempéra- ture des dispositifs. L’apport d’énergie thermique au système le fait évoluer vers un état thermodynamique stable correspondant à une micro-séparation de phase entre les deux matériaux nuisible aux performances photovoltaïques du dispositif. La solution à cette problématique envisagée dans cette thèse est de figer la morphologie optimale de la couche photo-active par réticulation chimique. Dans le but de prévenir la diffusion et la cristallisation des dérivés du fullerène, plusieurs approches ont été étudiées : la formation d’une maille de polymères réticulés, l’accroche des dérivés du fullerène aux chaînes du polymères ou la liaison entre plusieurs dérivés du fullerène. Les différentes fonctions réticulantes utilisées dans ces approches sont l’allyle, le cinnamate, l’anthracène et l’azoture. Au cours de ces travaux, des résultats satisfaisants ont été obtenus avec la fonction azoture. Basé sur cette fonction, nous avons développé un additif qui permet d’augmenter notablement la stabilité thermique des cellules solaires réticulées. Cette approche a été validée sur plusieurs couples de matériaux polymères/dérivés du fullerène à l’état de l’art. / Efficient bulk-heterojunction solar cells require an interpenetrating network of electron donating and electron accepting materials. Indeed, the optimum nano-sized phase segregation is a thermodynamically metastable system. Under operating conditions, especially under solar illumination, the temperature of the solar cell increases significantly. Adding thermal energy to the system leads to further micro-phase separation that is harmful for photovoltaic device performances. In order to freeze the optimal morphology, several approaches based on chemical cross-linking have been studied : formation of cross-linked polymer network, binding fullerene derivatives to polymer side chains or cross-linking between fullerene derivatives. Different cross-linkable functions have been used : allyl, cinamate, anthracene and azide. A versatile stabilization strategy of bulk heterojunctions morphology has been found by mean of incorporating a cross-linkable additive in low amounts with different polymer :fullerene blends. This approach is validated on multiple materials at the state-of-the-art.

L’industrialisation des cellules photovoltaïques organiques implique le développement de plusieurs aspects. Une augmentation des rendements de conversion, une amélioration de la stabilité et la mise au point de procédés de dépôt en ligne. Ce dernier point va passer par le développement de dépôt par voie liquide des différentes couches composant les dispositifs. Dans ma thèse je vais m’intéresser à un type de couche, les couches de transport de charges. Ces couches sont disposées entre la couche photo-active et les électrodes afin d’améliorer l’extraction des charges générées au sein de la première vers ces dernières. Je vais focaliser mon étude sur les couches de transport de trous. Afin de remplacer le matériau couramment utilisé (PEDOT:PSS), on utilise souvent les oxydes de métaux de transition.Ces matériaux habituellement évaporés, sont déposables en voie liquide à partir de suspensions de nanoparticules, ou de précurseurs (ex: sol-gel). J’ai développé 3 approches au cours de ma thèse. Dans la première, un dépôt par voie sol-gel d’oxyde de tungstène ou de vanadium a permis d’obtenir des rendements similaires à ce qui est obtenu avec les mêmes matériaux évaporés. Dans la deuxième approche un dépôt d’oxyde de cobalt (II, III),m’a permis d’améliorer l’extraction des charges. Néanmoins le matériau présente des difficultés de mise en forme ne permettant pas d’atteindre des rendements à l’état de l’art.Finalement une approche plus originale a été développée, une diffusion induite thermiquement d’un dopant, déposé par voie liquide à l’interface organique/métal m’a permis d’obtenir des rendements similaires à ce qui est obtenu avec des structures classiques. / In order to allow the industrialisation of organic photovoltaic cells, power conversion efficiency must be increased, stability must be improved, and in-line deposition processing (solution processing of each layer) must be developed. This work presents the development of solution-processed interlayers, layers inserted between the photoactive organic layer and electrodes in order to enhance charge extraction. This study is focused on the hole transport layer and, in particular, the replacement of the commonly used material PEDOT:PSS. A frequent approach to achieve this is the use of transition metal oxide layers such as MoO3 orV2O5. These oxides are usually deposited by evaporation but can be solution-processed from precursor solutions (e.g. sol-gel) or nanoparticle suspensions. This work considers three approaches. In the first, the use of sol-gel deposited tungsten or vanadium oxide led to an enhancement of hole extraction, allowing efficiencies in the range of what is expected for state of the art materials to be reached. The second approach involved the use of solution processed cobalt oxide. Although the use of this material enhanced charge extraction, due to a deposition issue, efficiency did not reach expected value. Finally, thermally induced diffusion of a solution-processed dopant was utilised, which is a novel approach. The dopant deposited at the organic/metal interface enhances hole extraction and leads to power conversion efficiencies similar to reference cells incorporating an evaporated metal oxide interlayer.

<p>Over the last few decades, bulk-heterojunction organic photovoltaic devices comprising an intimately mixed donor-acceptor blend have gained serious attention due to their potential for being cheap, light weight, flexible and environmentally friendly. In this thesis, APFO-3/PCBM bulk-heterojunction based organic photovoltaic devices with an inverted layer sequence were investigated systematically. Doctor blade coating is a technique that is roll-to-roll compatible and cost efficient and has been used to fabricate the solar cells.</p><p>Initial studies focused on optimization of the electrodes. A thin film of the conductive polymer PEDOT:PSS was chosen to be the transparent anode. Different PEDOT:PSS films with respect to the film thickness and deposition temperature were characterized in terms of conductivity and transmission. Decent conductance and transmittance were obtained in the films deposited with wet film thickness setting of 35 μm, The cathode was fabricated from a metal bilayer comprising Al and Ti with an area about 1 cm², and the best-working cathodes contained a 70 nm thick Al layer covered by a thin Ti layer of about 10 -15 nm.</p><p>Optimized coating temperature and wet film thickness settings for the active layer and PEDOT:PSS layer were experimentally determined. The highest efficiency of the APFO-3/PCBM based inverted solar cells fabricated by doctor blading was 0.69%, which exceeded the efficiency of spin-coated inverted cells.</p><p>A higher efficiency (0.8 %) was achieved by adding a small amount of high molecular weight polystyrene to the active layer. Morphological changes after adding of the polystyrene were observed by optical microscopy and AFM. A coating temperature dependent phase separation of the APFO-3/PCBM/polystyrene blend was found.</p><p> </p>