This study provides practical insights into how organizations can achieve deliberate organizational routine change, a topic that has not been extensively explored in existing literature. Grounded in Feldman and Pentland's (2003) theory of routine change, the research examines routine actors' perceptions of formal process descriptions (ostensive routine aspects) and their actual performance variations (performative routine aspects). The study introduces a descriptive tool to interpret the interplay and perceptions of these two aspects, demonstrating how this can lead to practical insights that inform deliberate routine change. This is illustrated by focusing on SAAB's Sales (SP) and Product Life Cycle Management (PLCM) processes within the context of their Future Product Candidates initiative in the shadow of the RussoUkrainian war. This focus could substantially contribute to the organizational routine change literature, offering valuable insights for both organizations and academics, as it has not been thoroughly explored. Additionally, the research provides actionable insights for SAAB, highlighting the need to balance adherence to successful routine elements with the flexibility required for future changes. Based on routine actors' perceptions of the identified performative variations, the research suggests adjustments to adapt SAAB’s SP and PLCM processes to the transforming defense environment:  Maintain guiding checklists: While some routine actors found them beneficial, flexibility might be needed if they become a hindrance in the future.  Reduce the over-quantification of unknowns: This aligns with the strategic shift towards exploration, requiring the embrace of uncertainty.  Clarify and encourage more open customer engagement in the early PLCM stages: Fosters exploration but may require training and clear communication to avoid overpromising.  Complement the current PLCM process with an incubation process: To encourage, capture, and develop employees’ ideas.

Organizational transformations, such as mergers and acquisitions, disrupt the steady state of organizational daily life. Under some conditions, these kinds of disruptions may actually alter the organizational and occupational structure of everyday work. However, current theories of organizational learning and knowledge governance, such as the so-called ‘knowledge- or capability-based view of the firm’, are inadequate when it comes to the potential number of structural variations inherent in an organizational transformation taking place in non-commercial organizational settings such as higher education institutions. In an exploratory case study of a university merger, this dissertation inductively examines how governance structures in universities impact the creation and exploitation of knowledge, both in core academic activities (research and teaching) and in related and supporting administrative tasks. This setting provides an institutional configuration that differs considerably from that which has informed most previous research on the creation, sharing and exploitation of knowledge, but in which there are prominent institutional locales for the governance of knowledge processes. Taking a practice lens, this study proposes a finer-grained picture of those structural variations by depicting the recursive relationship between changes in knowledge content (ostensive aspects) and knowledge-use practices (performative aspects) in the academic merger. Similarities and differences in relation to knowledge governance in firms are also identified. The findings suggest a classification of the micro-processes by which organizational and competence-based capabilities are recreated, improving our understanding of knowledge-based capabilities (re)creation at different levels of organization and through different stages of merger implementation.

組織例規是組織行為的重要基石(Nelson and Winter, 1982; Becker, Lazaric, Nelson, and Winter, 2005)。組織例規一方面反映組織內重複做事的方式，是組織穩定性的來源(Simon, 1945; Cyert and March, 1963; Nelson and Winter, 1982)。另一方面，近期學者主張組織例規必須具有內部動態性，組織方能有彈性地回應環境的變化(Feldman, 2000; Feldman and Pentland, 2003; Pentland and Feldman, 2005; Becker, Lazaric, Nelson, and Winter, 2005)。 雖然學術界與實務界對於組織例規帶來的穩定性已有共識，對於組織例規如何幫助組織快速、有效地回應環境變異性 (彈性) (Sethi , Khamba, and Kiran, 2007)，學者的看法紛紜 (e.g., Adler, Goldoftas, and Levine, 1999; Pentland, 1995; Pentland and Rueter, 1994; Feldman and Pentland, 2000; Feldman, 2000; Feldman and Rafaeli, 2002; Feldman and Pentland, 2003; Pentland and Feldman, 2005; Becker, Lazaric, Nelson, and Winter; 2005)。Feldman and Pentland (2003) 主張在探討組織例規與彈性關聯性時，應將組織例規重概念化，認為主張組織例規除了包含組織例規的結構層面 (ostensive/structure aspects)，也包含組織成員實際執行例規之代理層面 (performative/agency aspects)。Feldman and Pentland (2003) 並主張組織成員實際執行例規的代理層面是促成彈性的來源。 本論文主張，除了可藉由組織成員選擇例規執行的方式成為彈性的來源 (e.g., Feldman, 2000; Feldman and Pentland, 2003) 外，組織也可能透過結構面組織例規的設計來影響組織成員的決策行為 (代理面組織例規)，進而達到彈性的目的。 本論文探討之研究問題包括：(一) 因應環境變異性，組織傾向發展哪些結構面的組織例規? (二) 結構面的組織例規如何影響組織個人決策行為，以幫助組織快速、有效地回應環境變異性，進而達到彈性的目的？ 本論文的研究設計採Eisenhardt (1989) 之歸納性個案研究法。選取的個案公司包含5家在台灣市場成立20年以上之行銷研究公司，個案公司的篩選是依循理論抽樣的原則 (Glass and Strauss, 1967; Eisenhardt, 1989)，挑選的個案公司包含在台灣之本國行銷研究公司及多國行銷研究公司。資料蒐集方法上，本論文蒐集多重來源之資料，並進行三角驗證 (Eisenhardt, 1989; Yin, 2003)。資料來源包括：初級資料和次級資料。初級資料包含研究者與行銷研究公司參與客製化量化研究專案之不同活動、不同階層的不同人員所進行之面對面深入訪談，以及研究者實地觀察經驗，此外，研究者同時也非正式的訪談兩位客戶端與行銷研究公司合作的窗口，瞭解客戶對各個專案活動之需求；次級資料則包含行銷研究公司的網站資訊、報章雜誌報導、公司簡介、宣傳文件，以及部份公司內部之文件資料與電子郵件資料。本論文的分析單位是行銷研究公司執行量化研究專案時的活動 (activities)。 針對研究問題一，本論文發現對知識密集之新式專業服務公司 (neo professional service firms) 而言，為了回應異質之任務環境變異性，標準作業程序對於彈性的影響並不明顯，取而代之的是具可塑性的組織例規。面對異質/穩定的任務環境變異性，組織傾向發展內容樣板、檢查樣板、書面原則、及文法行動例規。而面對異質/變動的任務環境變異性，組織傾向發展資訊搜尋例規、互動式經驗學習例規、書面原則、及劇本。 針對研究問題二，本論文發現不同特性之具可塑性組織例規可能影響組織成員決策判斷面，以及/或決策行動面，進而影響組織成員回應環境變異性的品質/速度 (彈性)。 / Organizational routines are fundamental constituents of organizational behavior (Nelson and Winter, 1982; Becker, Lazaric, Nelson, and Winter, 2005). On one hand, organizational routines reflect repetitious “ways of doing things” in an organization, which signify stability (Simon, 1945; Cyert and March, 1963; Nelson and Winter, 1982). On the other, organizational routines embrace “endogenous changes”, which help organizations respond flexibly to environmental changes (Feldman, 2000; Feldman and Pentland, 2003; Pentland and Feldman, 2005; Becker, Lazaric, Nelson, and Winter, 2005). While there is a consensus in literature that organizational routines serve as major sources of stability, discussions on how organizational routines embrace “endogenous changes” have just started in recent years (e.g., Pentland and Reuter, 1994; Feldman, 2000; Feldman and Pentland, 2003; Becker, Lazaric, Nelson, and Winter, 2005; Becker and Zirpoli, 2008). Among the discussions, Feldman and Pentland (2003) propose a distinction between ostensive/structural routines and performative routines in order to understand endogenous dynamics of organizational routines. This research seeks to extend the discussions on endogenous dynamics of organizational routines. In particular, two research questions are investigated. First, in order to respond to task environment dynamisms, what types of ostensive routines are designed in practice? Second, how do different ostensive routines affect individual’s decision-making behavior (performative routines) and thus influence flexibility. Three links are explored in this research, including a link of task environment dynamisms to the design of ostensive routines, a link of ostensive routines to performative routines, and a link of performative routines to flexibility. The first link reveals that different task environment dynamisms may require different design of ostensive routines. The second and third links show how assorted ostensive routines influence different components of individual’s decision-making behavior (performative routines) and thus influence flexibility. In this research, flexibility is defined as the ability to respond effectively to the ever-changing needs of customers and is composed of two dimensions, the quality of response and the speed of response (Sethi, Khamba, and Kiran, 2007). In order to explore the linkages, this research employs a multiple-case design (Eisenhardt, 1989; Eisenhardt and Graebner, 2007). Five marketing research firms, including three local marketing research firms and two subsidiaries of multinational marketing research firms, are selected for field studies. I conducted field observations in one case firm and initiated field in-depth interviews with a diversity of people from different functions and different levels at each case firm. Within each firm, nine research activities/processes, which require flexible performance, are selected as units of analysis. The result first shows that across the nine research processes studied, all processes face heterogeneous task environment, including heterogeneous-stable environment and heterogeneous-shifting environment. In order to respond to task environment that is heterogeneous in nature, marketing research firms develop a collection of ostensive routines or routine artifacts, such as standard operating procedures, content templates, checklist templates, written rules, grammars of action, information-search routines, interactive experiential learning routines, and scripts. Among the ostensive routines, standard operating procedures are steady in nature and mainly assist in achieving efficiency. Other ostensive routines, such as content templates, checklist templates, written rules, grammars of action, information-search routines, interactive experiential learning routines, and scripts, are ‘flexible’ in nature and play an important role in influencing flexibility. In other words, these ‘flexible’ ostensive routines or routine artifacts are designed to be “live routines” (Cohen, 2007; Pentland and Feldman, 2008). In this thesis, the focus is on the presence of these ‘flexible’ ostensive routines and the influence of these ‘flexible’ ostensive routines on individual’s decision-making, which in turn influence the quality of response or the speed of response, the two important dimensions of flexibility (Sethi, Khamba, and Kiran, 2007). This research discovers that facing heterogeneous-stable task environment, content templates, checklist templates, grammars of action, and written rules are important ostensive routines. Content templates specify alternatives or rationales for selection of alternatives in decision-making; checklist templates specify considering factors for decision-making; written rules specify heuristics for complex decision-making; grammars of action specify logics of action. Responding to heterogeneous-stable task environment, content templates that specify alternatives guide individual’s action to specific direction and influence the speed of response consequently. Content templates that specify rationales for selection of alternatives provide individuals with logics of selection, which in turn affect the quality of response. Besides, checklist templates remind individuals with factors to be considered; written rules provide individuals with heuristics for making complex decision; grammars of action indicate logics of action to individuals. The quality of response may be influenced in consequence. Additionally, this research also discovers that facing heterogeneous-shifting task environment, information-search routines, interactive experiential learning routines, written rules, and scripts are viable designs of ostensive routines. Information-search routines exist to facilitate knowing-who, knowing-what, and knowing-how search behavior. Interactive experiential learning routines represent drilling activities “for maintaining infrequently exercised capabilities” (Nelson and Winter, 1982: 107). Written rules provide “tips” for making complex decisions. Scripts provide stories about working examples or best practices (Szulanski and Jensen, 2004). Responding to heterogeneous-shifting task environment, information-search routines, which facilitate knowing-who search behavior, provide individuals with specific direction of asking whom. The speed of response may be affected as a result. In addition, if there is a trust between the question sender and the receiver (Moorman, Deshpande, and Zaltman 1993), the receiver is willing to share his/her experience, and the sender’s judgment repertoire is likely to be influenced. Therefore, the quality of response may be affected. Information-search routines, which facilitate knowing-what search behavior, supply individuals with general market information and may impact individual’s judgment about factor considerations; information-search routines, which facilitate knowing-how search behavior, provide individuals with the logic of action to solve problems. The quality of response may be affected as a result. Besides, interactive experiential learning routines urge individuals to share and learn from each other; written rules provide heuristics for complex decision-making; scripts provide stories of working examples or best practices (Szulanski and Jensen, 2004). Through these routines, individual’s judgment repertoire may be influenced. The quality of response may be influenced consequently. The discovery from this research is in line with the recent theoretical argument that there is endogenous dynamics of organizational routines (Becker, Lazaric, Nelson, and Winter, 2005) and organizational routines can be sources of flexibility (e.g., Feldman, 2000; Feldman and Pentland, 2003). While recent scholars mainly argue that individuals who decide the way to perform routines serve as the key sources of flexibility, this thesis propose that the design of ‘flexible’ ostensive routines or routine artifacts may also influence individual’s decision-making and therefore contribute to the achievement of flexibility. The discovery not only extend theoretical discussions on endogenous dynamics of organizational routines (e.g., Feldman and Pentland, 2003; Pentland and Feldman, 2005; Becker, Lazaric, Nelson and Winter, 2005; Pentland and Feldman, 2008), but also provide some implications to the theory of organizations in action (e.g., Thompson, 1967), the micro-foundations of organizational capabilities/dynamic capabilities (e.g., Felin and Foss, 2005; Teece, 2007; Abell, Felin, and Foss, 2008; Foss, Husted, and Michailova, 2010), and the design of processes (e.g., Hall and Johnson, 2009).

The impact of knowledge on firm performance has been seen as one explanation of firm performance heterogeneity, which is a central question in the area of Strategic Management. However, there has been surprisingly limited research into the role of new knowledge internalization within firms. Further, the ubiquitous role of external knowledge providers, especially those that explicitly exist to provide knowledge to firms (Consulting Service Firms) has been negligibly studied. Specifically this dissertation looked at how firms first understand new knowledge and suggested that firms differ in their ability to discern the impact of this new knowledge based on the absorptive capacity that they already possess. I examine how firms internalize this new knowledge and suggest that they can either use existing internal resources or seek external assistance to achieve this internalization. This dissertation has empirically examined these linkages. A survey sent to the top management of 2015 Indian firms, yielded 277 usable responses, which have provided insights into the new knowledge internalization pathways in firms. I use structural equation modeling and hierarchical regressions to test my hypotheses. I find that firms do differ in their use of internal and external knowledge providers, while attempting to internalize new knowledge and that the quality of the relationship impacts the outcomes of any external engagement. I also find that firms with absorptive capacity benefit both by having better short term financial performance and also by being well situated to increase their stocks of knowledge assets, which can help long term performance. This dissertation contributes to several streams of literature in the field of strategic management. I add to the knowledge based view literature and more specifically to the absorptive capacity literature by partially opening the black box of organizational routines. This dissertation also contributes to the professional service literature by suggesting that consultants can help firms generate performance, although this is particularly beneficial to firms that already posses high absorptive capacity. Implications of the results from both practice and research perspectives are discussed and areas of future research are suggested.

The research study investigated how organizational routines influenced classroom and intervention instruction in a primary school. Educators have used student data for decades but they continue to struggle with the best way to use data to influence instruction. The historical overview of the research highlighted the context of data use from the Effective Schools movement through the No Child Left Behind Act noting the progression of emphasis placed on student data results. While numerous research studies have focused on the use of data, the National Center for Educational Evaluation and Regional Assistance (2009) reported that existing research on the use of data to make instructional decisions does not yet provide conclusive evidence of what practices work to improve student achievement. A descriptive case study methodology was employed to investigate the educational phenomenon of organizational routines implemented for data-driven decision making to influence classroom and intervention instruction. The case study examined a school that faced the macrolevel pressures of school improvement. The study triangulated data from surveys, interviews, and document analysis in an effort to reveal common themes about organizational routines for data-driven decision making. The study participants identified 14 organizational routines as influencing instruction. The interview questions focused on the common themes of (a) curriculum alignment, (b) common assessments, (c) guided reading levels, (d) professional learning communities, and (e) acceleration plans. The survey respondents and interview participants explained how the organizational routines facilitated the use of data by providing (a) focus and direction, (b) student centered instruction, (c) focus on student growth, (d) collaboration and teamwork, (e), flexible grouping of students, and (f) teacher reflection and ownership of all students. Challenges and unexpected outcomes of the organizational routines for data-driven decision making were also discussed. The challenges with the most references included (a) time, (b) too much data (c) data with conflicting information, (d) the pacing guide, and (e) changing teacher attitudes and practices. Ultimately, a data-driven culture was cultivated within the school that facilitated instructional adjustments resulting in increased academic achievement. / Ed. D.

Accomplishing desired benefits from investments in planned change is problematical for organizations, their leaders and the change agents charged with delivery. This is despite a well-developed literature, replete with advice on how change should be achieved. Examination of this literature shows the primary focus on change agents and their practices. This research widens the focus by observing the influence of change agents, change recipients and line managers on organizational routines undergoing planned change. It examines the interplay between stability and change in organizational routines, adopting a social practice perspective, and the routine intended to change as the unit of analysis (Feldman and Pentland, 2003, 2005). The research builds on claims that to understand the patterns of action within routines requires the internal dynamics – the claimed duality between ostensive (in principle) and performative (in practice) aspects - to be examined. A research method to operationalize the study of this claimed duality was devised following the principles of Strong Structuration (Stones, 2005). This method enabled a unique conceptualization of the study of routine dynamics, focused on planned change from the perspective of multiple, interdependent actors. Two cases of change agents following the advice in the planned change literature were explored. In one case, stability of the routine persisted when change was intended. In the other, change was relatively easy to achieve irrespective of change agent actions. The primary contribution is the demonstration of how the attitudes to change of change recipients, line managers and change agents influence the internal dynamics of routines undergoing planned change. Other contributions pertain to the method of ‘unpacking’ organizational routines and its potential for shaping future practice. This research does not offer new ‘normative’ advice but instead sensitizes planned change practitioners to the level of analysis they need to carry out to ensure that their interventions are suitably designed.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-15T19:25:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Alvaro Antonio Bueno de Camargo.pdf: 4176067 bytes, checksum: 1b557d88cd41f0339ae707ebe16f862c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-02-16 / Fundo Mackenzie de Pesquisa / The phenomenon of dynamic capabilities in organizations is object of great interest of researcher of strategic management, organizational change and sustainable competitive advantage. Despite the strong interest on the matter, the phenomenon of Dynamic Capabilities in organizations still needs better explanations. In order to contribute to a better understanding of this phenomenon a qualitative research on a multinational company with a record history of activities of more than 130 years was developed. The research was meant to be an exploratory study. The research method used was the case study. The research aimed to identify evidences of dynamic capabilities in the company researched. In addition to this general objective, the research also posted four specific objectives: a) identification of dynamics capabilities evidences in terms of idea generation disruptions introduced on the market and new products, services and process development; b) identification of skills and behaviors on individual, group and organizational levels that support the existence of dynamic capabilities; c) identification of processes and routines that support dynamic capabilities; d) identification of learning mechanisms and knowledge governance that support dynamic capabilities. In order to develop the research several interviews were conducted with the directors of the Brazilian branch of a multinational corporation named Berlitz. The research also examined documents, historical records and has used direct observations on the spot. The research results showed that the company actually presents Dynamic Capabilities. The research also clarified the skills, behaviors, processes, routines, learning and knowledge mechanisms that support Dynamic Capabilities at Berlitz. / O fenômeno das capacidades dinâmicas nas organizações constitui um ramo de grande interesse para pesquisadores nas áreas de gerenciamento estratégico, mudanças organizacionais e vantagem competitiva sustentável. Apesar do forte interesse sobre o tema, o fenômeno das Capacidades Dinâmicas nas organizações ainda carece de melhores explicações. Para contribuir com um melhor entendimento desse fenômeno foi desenvolvida uma pesquisa qualitativa em uma empresa multinacional de serviços com um histórico de mais de 130 anos de atividades. O estudo em pauta tem caráter exploratório e faz uso do método de estudo de caso. A pesquisa teve por objetivo geral identificar indícios da existência de capacidades dinâmicas na empresa pesquisada. Além desse objetivo geral, a pesquisa teve quatro objetivos específicos: a) identificar indícios de capacidades dinâmicas na empresa estudada do ponto de vista da geração de ideias, introdução de rupturas no mercado, desenvolvimento de novos produtos, serviços e novos processos; b) identificar as habilidades e comportamentos pessoais, de grupo e organizacionais que propiciam a existência de capacidades dinâmicas na empresa; c) identificar processos e rotinas de suporte às capacidades dinâmicas e d) identificar os mecanismos de aprendizagem e de governança do conhecimento que suportam a existência de capacidades dinâmicas. Para o desenvolvimento da pesquisa foram feitas entrevistas com todo o corpo diretivo da filial brasileira da empresa multinacional Berlitz. O processo de pesquisa analisou também documentos, registros históricos e fez uso de observações diretas in loco. O resultado da pesquisa mostrou que a empresa pesquisada de fato possui Capacidades Dinâmicas. A pesquisa também esclareceu as habilidades, comportamentos, processos, rotinas, mecanismos de aprendizagem e de governança de conhecimento que sustentam a existência de Capacidades Dinâmicas na empresa pesquisada.

Surrounding business environment, opportunities and requirements of organizations are under constant change. According to the evolutionary economics, organizations continuously make efforts to adapt themselves in line with changing circumstances of environments where they operate. In exploration of organizational change, organizational routines are recognized as the key analysis units. It is because when a change plan is required, routines undergo design or redesign processes. The construction industry literature is quite limited in terms of explorations regarding to organizational routines evolution. In this study, an attempt has been made to support the arguments, which claim / organizations react to external pressures through modifying their organizational routines. The objective is fulfilled by demonstrating original evidences of adaptation processes of two organizational routines of Turkish construction firms&lsquo / , which were influenced by Turkish construction industry environmental evolution over the past twenty years.Within this context, a questionnaire survey was administered to three Turkish construction professionals, in order to detect industry change drivers and events and their impact of organizational performance features. Business development and claim management routines were identified by industry survey respondents, as the two mostly changed routines over the past twenty years. Conducting further interviews with two Turkish Construction firms, the organizational evolutionary processes of these two routines, which were born as the reflection to the detected main industry change events, are mapped and investigated. Research findings detected the principle change drivers of Turkish construction industry over the past twenty years as

Referring to an employee as “the face” of an organization suggests that an individual worker’s actions may transmit information about the kind of organization they represent. Mascots in a baseball stadium make that metaphor material by wearing an organizationally prescribed mask and performing in the name of the organization (Keller & Richey, 2006; MacNeill, 2009). This study investigated how one baseball mascot, Spike of the Round Rock Express, embodied his team’s identity through the activation of organizational routines by analyzing video recordings, autoethnographic field notes, and stories (Heath & Luff, 2013). Recognizing the highly symbolic work of a mascot work has implications for the performer, audience members, and organizations who rely on mascots to enhance the stadium experience. Additionally, this research provides suggestions for future mascot performers on how they might come to “know your role and play it to the hilt” (Devantier & Turkington, 2006). Organizational routines combine three recursive dimensions: the ostensive, understandings an employee brings to his or her work, the performative, actions an employee takes while doing his or her work, and the artifactual, material objects an employee uses or creates in order to facilitate work tasks (Feldman & Pentland, 2003). This research begins with an exploration of how I developed occupational and organizational role expectations. In order to know my role, I had to learn Spike’s identity: what he must do, may do, and can do (Strauss, 1959; Enfield, 2011). I specifically recognize the ways I came to understand my role as someone who embodies the mission of the organization through the preparation of artifacts for performance and protection of the audience for whom I am performing. The performative dimension is explored by identifying instances when my performance challenged established understandings of Spike’s identity, specifically in instances where I was unprepared for a scenario or chose to protect one group’s interest over another’s. In these unanticipated moments, I often found myself turning other participants in the stadium event, like fans and coworkers, into co-performers and relied on their improvisational offerings to inform my ongoing performance (Eisenberg, 1990; Meyer, Frost, & Weick, 1998). / text

Accomplishing desired benefits from investments in planned change is problematical for organizations, their leaders and the change agents charged with delivery. This is despite a well-developed literature, replete with advice on how change should be achieved. Examination of this literature shows the primary focus on change agents and their practices. This research widens the focus by observing the influence of change agents, change recipients and line managers on organizational routines undergoing planned change. It examines the interplay between stability and change in organizational routines, adopting a social practice perspective, and the routine intended to change as the unit of analysis (Feldman and Pentland, 2003, 2005). The research builds on claims that to understand the patterns of action within routines requires the internal dynamics – the claimed duality between ostensive (in principle) and performative (in practice) aspects - to be examined. A research method to operationalize the study of this claimed duality was devised following the principles of Strong Structuration (Stones, 2005). This method enabled a unique conceptualization of the study of routine dynamics, focused on planned change from the perspective of multiple, interdependent actors. Two cases of change agents following the advice in the planned change literature were explored. In one case, stability of the routine persisted when change was intended. In the other, change was relatively easy to achieve irrespective of change agent actions. The primary contribution is the demonstration of how the attitudes to change of change recipients, line managers and change agents influence the internal dynamics of routines undergoing planned change. Other contributions pertain to the method of ‘unpacking’ organizational routines and its potential for shaping future practice. This research does not offer new ‘normative’ advice but instead sensitizes planned change practitioners to the level of analysis they need to carry out to ensure that their interventions are suitably designed.