Ce travail a été réalisé en cotutelle. / Le syndrome du surentraînement survient généralement suite à un haut degré de stress, associé ou non, au stress de l’entraînement et à un manque certain de repos et de récupération. La manifestation d’un tel syndrome peut être lourd de conséquences tant sur le plan médical que sur le plan social et économique. Il est donc important à ce jour, de valider des outils de prévention pertinents. Plusieurs théories ont donc tenté de déterminer l’avènement du surentraînement et d’en extraire des outils de prévention valides. Néanmoins, nos connaissances à ce sujet restent encore parcellaires. Malgré tout, deux axes de recherches nous permettraient d’accéder à des outils non-invasifs et accessibles. Les mesures de la régulation autonome du myocarde semblent être, depuis les résultats très encourageants de Bosquet et al (2008), des outils très prometteurs. De même, l’utilisation des performances cognitives pourraient être des outils très intéressants dans la prévention du surentraînement (Nederhof et al. 2006, Dupuy et al. 2010). Dans une perspective holistique, le modèle de Thayer et al (2009), nous permettrait d’intégrer l’utilisation combinée des performances cognitives aux indices de la variabilité de la fréquence cardiaque. Dans une démarche de validation il est également nécessaire de connaitre la sensibilité de ces techniques. Or à ce jour la reproductibilité des indices de la réactivation parasympathique ; technique relativement récente, ne sont pas connues. De même, il est important de faire la distinction entre la fatigue aiguë induite par une séance d’entraînement et une fatigue plus chronique. Si les relations entre fatigue aiguë et régulation autonome du myocarde sont bien connues, les relations avec la cognition, sont relativement moins claires. Les deux premières études de cette thèse, vont donc s’intéresser à connaitre la reproductibilité de indices de la réactivation parasympathique et les effets de la fatigue aiguë induite par un exercice sur la cognition associée au contrôle autonome du cœur. Les résultats nous montrent que les indices de la réactivation parasympathique sont moyennement reproductibles, nécessitant une attention toute particulière sur la standardisation de leurs mesures. Par ailleurs, bien que la fatigue induite par l’exercice, produise des désordres d’ordre physiologique, les performances cognitives semblent relativement stables. Apres avoir vérifié ces points d’ordre technologique et méthodologique, il était intéressant de vérifier l’effet d’une surcharge d’entraînement sur les outils retenus, afin d’apprécier leur sensibilité aux effets d’une fatigue chronique. Les résultats nous montrent à la fois l’intérêt d’utiliser les mesures de la variabilité de la fréquence cardiaque ainsi que les mesures de la réactivation parasympathique. Ces deux mesures semblent sensibles aux variations de la charge d’entraînement ainsi qu’à l’état de fatigue des sportifs. Tout aussi intéressant, les performances cognitives semblent également nous permettre de prévenir un état d’intolérance à l’entraînement. Ce travail de thèse trouve toute sa légitimité car il s’inscrit dans une logique d’amélioration de la santé et de prévention du dépassement voire du surentraînement chez le sportif. Les résultats issus de ce travail de thèse, nous permettent d’apporter de nouveaux outils de prévention ainsi que des recommandations quant à leur utilisation. / Overtraining syndrome usually occurs due to a high degree of stress, associated or not, the stress of training and a certain lack of rest and recovery. The demonstration of such a syndrome can have serious consequences both medically and socially and economically.It is therefore important to date to validate relevant prevention tools. Several theories have attempted to determine the advent of overtraining and extract valid prevention tools.Nevertheless, our knowledge on this subject are still patchy. Nevertheless, two lines of research would allow us to access non-invasive tools and accessible. Measures of autonomic regulation of the myocardium seem to be, from the very encouraging results of Grove et al (2008), tools very promising. Similarly, the use of cognitive performance could be very interesting tools in the prevention of overtraining (Nederhof et al. 2006, Dupuy et al. 2010). From a holistic perspective, the model of Thayer et al (2009), we would integrate the combined use of cognitive performance indices of heart rate variability. In a process of validation is also necessary to know the sensitivity of these techniques. Yet to date the reliability of the indices of parasympathetic reactivation; relatively new technique, are not known. Similarly, it is important to distinguish between acute fatigue induced by a workout and more chronic fatigue. If the relationship between acute fatigue and autonomic regulation of the myocardium are well known, the relationship with cognition, are relatively less clear. The first two studies in this thesis are therefore interested to know the reproducibility of indices of parasympathetic reactivation and effects of acute fatigue induced by exercise on cognition associated with the autonomous control of the heart. The results show that the indices of parasympathetic reactivation are moderately reproducible, requiring special attention on the standardization of measurements. Moreover, although fatigue induced by exercise, produce physiological disorders, cognitive performance appear relatively stable. After checking these points technological and methodological, it was interesting to test the effect of overload training on the tools used in order to assess their sensitivity to the effects of chronic fatigue. The results show both the value of using measures of heart rate variability and measures of parasympathetic reactivation. These two measures appear sensitive to changes in training load and to the fatigue of athletes. Equally interesting, cognitive performance also appear to us to prevent a state of intolerance in training. This thesis finds its legitimacy because it is a logical improvement of health and prevention of overtraining or even exceeded in athletes. The results of this thesis, we can provide new tools for prevention and recommendations for their use.

Le syndrome du surentraînement survient généralement suite à un haut degré de stress, associé ou non, au stress de l’entraînement et à un manque certain de repos et de récupération. La manifestation d’un tel syndrome peut être lourd de conséquences tant sur le plan médical que sur le plan social et économique. Il est donc important à ce jour, de valider des outils de prévention pertinents. Plusieurs théories ont donc tenté de déterminer l’avènement du surentraînement et d’en extraire des outils de prévention valides. Néanmoins, nos connaissances à ce sujet restent encore parcellaires. Malgré tout, deux axes de recherches nous permettraient d’accéder à des outils non-invasifs et accessibles. Les mesures de la régulation autonome du myocarde semblent être, depuis les résultats très encourageants de Bosquet et al (2008), des outils très prometteurs. De même, l’utilisation des performances cognitives pourraient être des outils très intéressants dans la prévention du surentraînement (Nederhof et al. 2006, Dupuy et al. 2010). Dans une perspective holistique, le modèle de Thayer et al (2009), nous permettrait d’intégrer l’utilisation combinée des performances cognitives aux indices de la variabilité de la fréquence cardiaque. Dans une démarche de validation il est également nécessaire de connaitre la sensibilité de ces techniques. Or à ce jour la reproductibilité des indices de la réactivation parasympathique ; technique relativement récente, ne sont pas connues. De même, il est important de faire la distinction entre la fatigue aiguë induite par une séance d’entraînement et une fatigue plus chronique. Si les relations entre fatigue aiguë et régulation autonome du myocarde sont bien connues, les relations avec la cognition, sont relativement moins claires. Les deux premières études de cette thèse, vont donc s’intéresser à connaitre la reproductibilité de indices de la réactivation parasympathique et les effets de la fatigue aiguë induite par un exercice sur la cognition associée au contrôle autonome du cœur. Les résultats nous montrent que les indices de la réactivation parasympathique sont moyennement reproductibles, nécessitant une attention toute particulière sur la standardisation de leurs mesures. Par ailleurs, bien que la fatigue induite par l’exercice, produise des désordres d’ordre physiologique, les performances cognitives semblent relativement stables. Apres avoir vérifié ces points d’ordre technologique et méthodologique, il était intéressant de vérifier l’effet d’une surcharge d’entraînement sur les outils retenus, afin d’apprécier leur sensibilité aux effets d’une fatigue chronique. Les résultats nous montrent à la fois l’intérêt d’utiliser les mesures de la variabilité de la fréquence cardiaque ainsi que les mesures de la réactivation parasympathique. Ces deux mesures semblent sensibles aux variations de la charge d’entraînement ainsi qu’à l’état de fatigue des sportifs. Tout aussi intéressant, les performances cognitives semblent également nous permettre de prévenir un état d’intolérance à l’entraînement. Ce travail de thèse trouve toute sa légitimité car il s’inscrit dans une logique d’amélioration de la santé et de prévention du dépassement voire du surentraînement chez le sportif. Les résultats issus de ce travail de thèse, nous permettent d’apporter de nouveaux outils de prévention ainsi que des recommandations quant à leur utilisation. / Overtraining syndrome usually occurs due to a high degree of stress, associated or not, the stress of training and a certain lack of rest and recovery. The demonstration of such a syndrome can have serious consequences both medically and socially and economically.It is therefore important to date to validate relevant prevention tools. Several theories have attempted to determine the advent of overtraining and extract valid prevention tools.Nevertheless, our knowledge on this subject are still patchy. Nevertheless, two lines of research would allow us to access non-invasive tools and accessible. Measures of autonomic regulation of the myocardium seem to be, from the very encouraging results of Grove et al (2008), tools very promising. Similarly, the use of cognitive performance could be very interesting tools in the prevention of overtraining (Nederhof et al. 2006, Dupuy et al. 2010). From a holistic perspective, the model of Thayer et al (2009), we would integrate the combined use of cognitive performance indices of heart rate variability. In a process of validation is also necessary to know the sensitivity of these techniques. Yet to date the reliability of the indices of parasympathetic reactivation; relatively new technique, are not known. Similarly, it is important to distinguish between acute fatigue induced by a workout and more chronic fatigue. If the relationship between acute fatigue and autonomic regulation of the myocardium are well known, the relationship with cognition, are relatively less clear. The first two studies in this thesis are therefore interested to know the reproducibility of indices of parasympathetic reactivation and effects of acute fatigue induced by exercise on cognition associated with the autonomous control of the heart. The results show that the indices of parasympathetic reactivation are moderately reproducible, requiring special attention on the standardization of measurements. Moreover, although fatigue induced by exercise, produce physiological disorders, cognitive performance appear relatively stable. After checking these points technological and methodological, it was interesting to test the effect of overload training on the tools used in order to assess their sensitivity to the effects of chronic fatigue. The results show both the value of using measures of heart rate variability and measures of parasympathetic reactivation. These two measures appear sensitive to changes in training load and to the fatigue of athletes. Equally interesting, cognitive performance also appear to us to prevent a state of intolerance in training. This thesis finds its legitimacy because it is a logical improvement of health and prevention of overtraining or even exceeded in athletes. The results of this thesis, we can provide new tools for prevention and recommendations for their use. / Ce travail a été réalisé en cotutelle.

Prolonged and intense exercise is known to modulate and suppress certain aspects of the immunoendocrine system. Such effects are thought to be largely mediated by the release of stress hormones and regulatory cytokines which originate from a variety of stress related paradigms in sport. These include acute physical exertion, chronic and repetitive exercise as well as other psychological and psychosocial aspects of training and competing in an elite environment. It may be of particular interest to study the effects of regular competition and training on immunoendocrine markers in rugby union players. At the professional level, rugby is an intense and physically demanding game where a significant amount of tissue trauma occurs as a result of the many game collisions. The aims of the studies outlined in this thesis were to determine the effects of acute, repeated and chronic exercise exposure on immunoendocrine markers and illness incidence in professional rugby union. Additional case studies were also undertaken to supplement main study findings. The first part of the thesis documented the effects of acute and repeated exercise on immunoendocrine markers in a cohort of international rugby union players. Data in study 1 showed that large disturbances in immunoendocine and hormone levels occur in players (n = 10) following game play. The magnitude of this response appeared dependent on game physicality (number of rucks/mauls, tackles) and the number of collisions players received during match play. Findings also showed suppression in host immunity, and in particular, innate immune function (neutrophil degranulation) which was not resolved 38 h (-29%) into the recovery period. In study 2, bloods were taken from players (n = 8) across a 21-day international rugby series. Data revealed that players entered the international camp with residual muscle damage (creatine kinase; CK) and inflammation (hs-CRP) following previous club involvement in European cup rugby. Further increases in stress related markers (cortisol, IL-6, CK, CRP) were not evident throughout the players time at the international training base. Conversely, a progressive increase in anabolic-catabolic balance (T/C ratio) was observed across time. In comparison to values on camp-entry (day 1), increases in T/C ratio were evident on day-5 (9.8%), day-7 (13%), day-19 (35%) and day-21 (45%) (P < 0.05). This data is suggestive of improved physiological recovery and was commensurate with team fitness goals (reduced volume + maintenance of training intensity) for that time. Findings suggest that monitoring of player club activities and training load preceding international duty is pertinent if they are required to represent their country inside 7 days. The second part of the thesis evaluated the stress induced effects of chronic rugby exposure in professional club players. Questionnaire data analysed from study 3 showed that players (n = 65) perceived current season length as being ‘too long’ (55%), ‘poorly structured’ (56%) and that game demands are increasing with time (52%). Furthermore, the majority of players (80%) felt that time ‘away’ from rugby was not sufficiently long enough and were in favour of a mid-season break (2 wks in duration). Investigation into the effects of chronic exercise on illness incidence, immunological and psychological state was carried out in a squad of club players (n = 30) over a competitive season (n = 48 wks) in studies 4-6. Findings revealed that specific periods in a rugby season resulted in disturbances to hormonal and immune status. These periods occurred following breaks in club game fixtures [November international and Six-nations period: February/early March], times of increased training intensity and increased ratio of conditioning/rugby activity. Peaks in number of upper respiratory illnesses (URIs) and disturbances in psychometric variables also occurred during these time periods. In 23% of all URIs, players reported that the presence of the illness either reduced activity (14.4%) or felt the need to go to bed (8.6%). Positional differences in variables were also observed. A higher incidence of URIs (3.4 vs 4.3) and lower concentrations of resting immune markers [salivary lysozyme: s-Lys (-31%); immunoglobulin A: s-IgA (-27%)] was observed in ‘backs’ (vs forwards) over the season. Higher mid-season cortisol levels was also observed in backs (P < 0.05) while conversely, greater concentrations of plasma CK and CRP were found in forwards throughout the season. These findings indicate positional specific differences in response to exercise load and point to the role of group specific recovery at certain times during the season. Data from study 6 showed that the number of training related complaints decreased across the season, findings which closely resembled corresponding decreases in plasma CRP values. This data is suggestive of a ‘repeated-bout’ effect or ‘contact adaptation’ in rugby union. Finally, comparison of methods used in the recording of illness data revealed that players were more honest when disclosing the existence of banal infections to a web-based training diary and under-reported infections to medical staff.

L’entraînement dans les sports d’endurance à haut niveau passe traditionnellement par des périodes de très fortes charges visant à imposer de forts stress. La littérature suggère que ces périodes seront d’autant plus intéressantes si elles sont associées à un important niveau de fatigue et à une diminution de performance (surmenage fonctionnel, SF). Cependant, il n’a jamais été comparé à une surcharge d’entraînement sans diminution de performance (fatigue aigüe, FA). La première partie a montré que la surcompensation de performance au cours de l’affûtage peut répondre de façon Gaussienne à la charge d’entraînement imposée avant l’affûtage. Plus précisément, les résultats ont démontré que l’augmentation de la charge d’entraînement avant l’affûtage peut maximiser la réponse positive à l’entraînement, seulement à condition que le stress d’entraînement ne dépasse pas la capacité de récupération de l’athlète et ne précipite pas de SF. Par ailleurs, il s’avère que les réponses d’affûtage semblent individuelles et non influencées par le niveau de fatigue généré en amont. Ces différences de performance s’expliquent notamment par une bonne adaptation à l’entraînement après une période de surcharge sans SF, quand un état de SF sera à l’inverse associé à une moins bonne adaptation et à une plus grande survenue d’états de santé infectieux. La seconde partie a suggéré que la fatigue observée au sein du groupe SF pouvait également avoir été causée par un phénomène de fatigue cardiaque. En effet, le développement du SF chez l’athlète entraîné est associé à une réduction des valeurs de débit cardiaque à l’exercice / The purpose of this work is to examine whether performance supercompensation during taper is maximized in endurance athletes after experiencing overreaching during an overload training period. This first study showed that 1) greater gains in performance and V˙O2max can be achieved when higher training load is prescribed before the taper but not in the presence of functional overreaching (F-OR); 2) peak performance is not delayed during taper when heavy training loads are completed immediately prior; and 3) F-OR provides higher risk for training maladaptation, including increased infection risks. The second study confirms sleep disturbances and increased illness in endurance athletes who present with symptoms of F-OR during periods of high volume training. The third study shows a lower cardiac output and systolic blood pressure with greater arteriovenous O2 difference were reported in F-OR subjects at all exercising intensities, while no significant change was observed in the control and acute fatigue (AF) groups. A concomitant decrease in epinephrine excretion was reported only in the F-OR group. All values returned to baseline at Post. Following an overload endurance training program leading to F-OR, the cardiac response to exhaustive exercise is transiently impaired, possibly due to reduced epinephrine excretion. This finding is likely to explain the complex process of underperformance syndrome experienced by F-OR endurance athletes during heavy load programs

Many athletes incorporate high training volumes and limited recovery periods into their training regimes. This may disrupt the fragile balance and the accumulation of exercise stress may exceed an athlete's finite capacity of resistance. A state of elevated fatigue, increased mood disturbance and decreased exercise performance can result. This is commonly known as overreaching and if increased training and limited recovery is continued, it is believed that the more serious state of overtraining may develop. This is relatively commonly experienced in athletes, however little scientific investigation has been conducted to determine the characteristics and underlying mechanisms. The overall aim of this thesis was to gain a greater understanding of the state of overreaching and to specifically provide new information on potential markers of this state as well as possible mechanisms. To study the cumulative effects of exercise stress and subsequent recovery on performance changes, fatigue indicators and possible mechanisms, the training of endurance cyclists was systematically controlled and monitored in two separate investigations. A number of variables were assessed including performance, physiological, biochemical, psychological, immunological and hormonal variables. In addition heart rate variability and serotonergic responsiveness were also assessed. Some of the more pertinent effects of overreaching included an increase in heart rate variability, a reduction in carbohydrate oxidation, an increase in serotonergic responsiveness and a reduction in stress hormone concentrations. These results suggest that autonomic imbalance in combination with decreased hormonal release appears to be related to the decline in performance and elevated fatigue apparent in overreached athletes. Additionally it also appears that alterations in the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis may occur in overreached athletes.

Titrating training volume to optimize physical readiness and avoid training distress in swimmers is a difficult challenge for coaches. The purpose of this study was to examine alterations in mood state in collegiate swimmers throughout an entire season and determine if there were differences across time, between training groups, gender, and year in school. A swim test was also employed to determine if alterations in swim times were associated with mood disturbance. Mood state and the swim test times were measured every three weeks. The results showed significant alterations in total mood disturbance (TMD) across time; and between genders, year in school and training group. When training volume was the highest, TMD in the swimmers had the greatest perturbations. These time periods were also associated with small but significant increases in the swim test times. These results indicate that use of the Profile of Mood States Questionnaire and a physiological swim test may be useful for detecting training distress in swimmers. Swim coaches may benefit from employing either or both of these tools for designing and tailoring training sessions and tapering for optimal performance.