A novel dendritic wound dressing was designed and characterized for its potential to treat chronic wounds. Comprised of gelatin, dendrimer, synthetic polymer and antibiotics, the dressing was electrospun to mimic the natural extracellular matrix (ECM). Gelatin is biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic, and easily available. The antibiotic, doxycycline, has the ability to inhibit matrix metalloproteinases. Matrix metalloproteinases, which occur in excess in chronic wounds, degrade the reconstituted ECM. Starburst™ polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer G3.5, which provides a versatile and structurally controlled architecture to construct nanomedicine, was covalently bonded to the gelatin backbone and electrospun into nanofibers with gelatin, doxycycline and stabilizing polymers. The proposed gelatin/dendrimer hybrid provides a bacterial free environment and mimics the ECM to promote wound healing. The development of this new polymeric matrix is an important step in advancing the use of bioactive nanofibers with targeted and controlled drug delivery as a wound dressing.

O ancoramento do complexo trans-[RuIII(NH3)4(SO4)ina]Cl em dendrímeros PAMAM de geração 0 e 2 (G0 e G2) foi realizada por meio de uma ligação peptídica, e esses produtos foram submetidos à reação com NO(g) gerando os respectivos nitrosilo complexos G0/RuNO e G2/RuNO. A caracterização desses compostos por infravermelho, UV-vis, voltametria cíclica, RMN de 1H e 13C, e análise elementar indica que os nitrosilo complexos foram imobilizados na superfície dos PAMAM G0 e G2. Os espectros de infravermelho para G0/RuNO e G2/RuNO apresentaram apenas um estiramento &nu;NO+, respectivamente em 1933 e 1937 cm-1, e para o produto RuNO (não ligado ao dendrímero) em 1933 cm-1. O espectro eletrônico para esses três compostos apresentou bandas nas regiões de 230, 270 e 330 nm, e por meio de voltametria cíclica observou-se o processo eletroquímico relativo a NO+/NO0 com ENO+/NO0 vs ECS igual a -0,173 V para G0/RuNO, -0,178 V G2/RuNO e -0,175 V para RuNO. O espectro de 1H RMN do complexo RuNO apresentou dois dubletos com deslocamentos químicos centrados em 8,73 e 8,35 ppm, referentes aos hidrogênios aromáticos respectivamente nas posições orto e meta do ligante ina coordenado ao metal. Para G0/RuNO e G2/RuNO esses sinais foram observados em 8,73 e 8,36 ppm, e os sinais referentes aos dendrímeros nesses produtos foram verificados entre 2,7 e 4,0 ppm. O espectro de RMN 13C para o complexo RuNO apresentou quatro sinais, e para G0/RuNO e G2/RuNO, respectivamente, dez e doze sinais, conforme esperado para esses compostos. Apesar dos resultados supracitados indicarem que o ancoramento ocorreu de forma satisfatória, os dados de análise elementar apresentaram desvios significativos entre o valor teórico e o experimental, principalmente para G2/RuNO. Em adição, foram realizados ensaios em células do baço de camundongos para verificar a toxicidade dos nitrosilo complexos às células saudáveis, e os resultados indicaram baixa citotoxicidade (<15%) para RuNO, G0/RuNO e G2/RuNO. Também foram realizados experimentos sobre a atividade in vitro desses compostos contra os parasitos Trypanosoma cruzi e Leishmania major. Os melhores resultados, ainda que preliminares, foram obtidos com a maior concentração, 200&micro;M (em relação à Ru), em que observou-se atividade tripanocida (média) em torno de 88% para G2/RuNO, 82% para G0/RuNO e 72% para RuNO, enquanto que para o Bz (referência) esse valor foi de 96%. Já a atividade leishmanicida (concentração de 200&micro;M) desses compostos ficou entre 60 a 70% (65% para G2RuNO, 69% para G0/RuNO e 60% para RuNO). / The anchoring of the complex trans-[RuIII(NH3)4(SO4)ina]Cl on PAMAM dendrimers of generation 0 and 2 (G0 and G2) was performed by a peptide bond, and the products were submitted to reaction with NO (g) generating the related nitrosyl complexes G0/RuNO and G2/RuNO. The characterization of these compounds by IR, UV-vis, cyclic voltammetry, 1H and 13C NMR, and elemental analysis indicated that the nitrosyl complexes were immobilized on the surface of PAMAM G0 and G2. Infrared spectra for G0/RuNO and G2/RuNO showed only one &nu;NO+ band in 1933 and 1937 cm-1 respectively, and for RuNO (complex not bounded to the dendrimer) at 1933 cm-1. Electronic spectra for these three compounds showed bands in the regions of 230, 270 and 330 nm, and by cyclic voltammetry it was possible to observe the electrochemical process relative to NO+/NO0 with ENO+/NO0 equal to -0.173 V vs SCE for G0/RuNO , -0.178 V for G2/RuNO and -0.175 V for RuNO. The 1H NMR spectra for RuNO complex showed two doublets with chemical shifts centered at 8.73 and 8.35 ppm, respectively referring to the aromatic hydrogens in the ortho and meta positions of the ina ligand coordinated to the metal. The same signals obtained for G0/RuNO and G2/RuNO were observed in 8.73 and 8.36 ppm, and signals related to dendrimers between 2.7 and 4.0 ppm. The 13C NMR spectrum for RuNO exhibited four signals, and for G0/RuNO and G2/RuNO, respectively, ten and twelve signals, as expected for these compounds. Despite the results above, which indicate that anchoring occurred satisfactorily, the elemental analysis showed significant deviations between the theoretical and experimental values, especially for G2/RuNO. In adition, in vitro assays were performed on mice spleen cells to determine the toxicity of the nitrosyl complex to healthy cells, and the results showed low cytotoxicity (<15%) for RuNO, G0/RuNO and G2/RuNO. In vitro experiments were also carried out to determine the activity of these compounds against the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania major. The best results (preliminary) were obtained with the highest concentration 200&micro;M (relative to Ru), which was observed trypanocidal activity (average) around 88% for G2/RuNO, 82% for G0/RuNO and 72% for RuNO, while for Bz (reference) it was around 96%. The leishmanicidal activity (concentration of 200&micro;M) of these compounds was in the range of 60 to 70% (65% for G2RuNO, 69% for G0/RuNO and 60% for RuNO).

O ancoramento do complexo trans-[RuIII(NH3)4(SO4)ina]Cl em dendrímeros PAMAM de geração 0 e 2 (G0 e G2) foi realizada por meio de uma ligação peptídica, e esses produtos foram submetidos à reação com NO(g) gerando os respectivos nitrosilo complexos G0/RuNO e G2/RuNO. A caracterização desses compostos por infravermelho, UV-vis, voltametria cíclica, RMN de 1H e 13C, e análise elementar indica que os nitrosilo complexos foram imobilizados na superfície dos PAMAM G0 e G2. Os espectros de infravermelho para G0/RuNO e G2/RuNO apresentaram apenas um estiramento &nu;NO+, respectivamente em 1933 e 1937 cm-1, e para o produto RuNO (não ligado ao dendrímero) em 1933 cm-1. O espectro eletrônico para esses três compostos apresentou bandas nas regiões de 230, 270 e 330 nm, e por meio de voltametria cíclica observou-se o processo eletroquímico relativo a NO+/NO0 com ENO+/NO0 vs ECS igual a -0,173 V para G0/RuNO, -0,178 V G2/RuNO e -0,175 V para RuNO. O espectro de 1H RMN do complexo RuNO apresentou dois dubletos com deslocamentos químicos centrados em 8,73 e 8,35 ppm, referentes aos hidrogênios aromáticos respectivamente nas posições orto e meta do ligante ina coordenado ao metal. Para G0/RuNO e G2/RuNO esses sinais foram observados em 8,73 e 8,36 ppm, e os sinais referentes aos dendrímeros nesses produtos foram verificados entre 2,7 e 4,0 ppm. O espectro de RMN 13C para o complexo RuNO apresentou quatro sinais, e para G0/RuNO e G2/RuNO, respectivamente, dez e doze sinais, conforme esperado para esses compostos. Apesar dos resultados supracitados indicarem que o ancoramento ocorreu de forma satisfatória, os dados de análise elementar apresentaram desvios significativos entre o valor teórico e o experimental, principalmente para G2/RuNO. Em adição, foram realizados ensaios em células do baço de camundongos para verificar a toxicidade dos nitrosilo complexos às células saudáveis, e os resultados indicaram baixa citotoxicidade (<15%) para RuNO, G0/RuNO e G2/RuNO. Também foram realizados experimentos sobre a atividade in vitro desses compostos contra os parasitos Trypanosoma cruzi e Leishmania major. Os melhores resultados, ainda que preliminares, foram obtidos com a maior concentração, 200&micro;M (em relação à Ru), em que observou-se atividade tripanocida (média) em torno de 88% para G2/RuNO, 82% para G0/RuNO e 72% para RuNO, enquanto que para o Bz (referência) esse valor foi de 96%. Já a atividade leishmanicida (concentração de 200&micro;M) desses compostos ficou entre 60 a 70% (65% para G2RuNO, 69% para G0/RuNO e 60% para RuNO). / The anchoring of the complex trans-[RuIII(NH3)4(SO4)ina]Cl on PAMAM dendrimers of generation 0 and 2 (G0 and G2) was performed by a peptide bond, and the products were submitted to reaction with NO (g) generating the related nitrosyl complexes G0/RuNO and G2/RuNO. The characterization of these compounds by IR, UV-vis, cyclic voltammetry, 1H and 13C NMR, and elemental analysis indicated that the nitrosyl complexes were immobilized on the surface of PAMAM G0 and G2. Infrared spectra for G0/RuNO and G2/RuNO showed only one &nu;NO+ band in 1933 and 1937 cm-1 respectively, and for RuNO (complex not bounded to the dendrimer) at 1933 cm-1. Electronic spectra for these three compounds showed bands in the regions of 230, 270 and 330 nm, and by cyclic voltammetry it was possible to observe the electrochemical process relative to NO+/NO0 with ENO+/NO0 equal to -0.173 V vs SCE for G0/RuNO , -0.178 V for G2/RuNO and -0.175 V for RuNO. The 1H NMR spectra for RuNO complex showed two doublets with chemical shifts centered at 8.73 and 8.35 ppm, respectively referring to the aromatic hydrogens in the ortho and meta positions of the ina ligand coordinated to the metal. The same signals obtained for G0/RuNO and G2/RuNO were observed in 8.73 and 8.36 ppm, and signals related to dendrimers between 2.7 and 4.0 ppm. The 13C NMR spectrum for RuNO exhibited four signals, and for G0/RuNO and G2/RuNO, respectively, ten and twelve signals, as expected for these compounds. Despite the results above, which indicate that anchoring occurred satisfactorily, the elemental analysis showed significant deviations between the theoretical and experimental values, especially for G2/RuNO. In adition, in vitro assays were performed on mice spleen cells to determine the toxicity of the nitrosyl complex to healthy cells, and the results showed low cytotoxicity (<15%) for RuNO, G0/RuNO and G2/RuNO. In vitro experiments were also carried out to determine the activity of these compounds against the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania major. The best results (preliminary) were obtained with the highest concentration 200&micro;M (relative to Ru), which was observed trypanocidal activity (average) around 88% for G2/RuNO, 82% for G0/RuNO and 72% for RuNO, while for Bz (reference) it was around 96%. The leishmanicidal activity (concentration of 200&micro;M) of these compounds was in the range of 60 to 70% (65% for G2RuNO, 69% for G0/RuNO and 60% for RuNO).

Thin film Nanocomposite (TFN) membranes are a relatively new class of high-performance semipermeable membranes for Reverse Osmosis (RO) applications. Large scale applications of TFN membranes have not been achieved yet due to the high production cost of the nanoparticles, agglomeration of the nanoparticles in the thin polyamide matrix of the membrane, and leaching out of typically toxic inorganic nanoparticles into the downstream. In this work, these challenges are addressed by incorporation of two different nanofillers: Cellulose NanoCrystals (CNC), and surface functionalized Halloysite NanoTubes (HNT). Amine groups, carboxylic acid groups, and the first generation of poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimers were used for functionalization of the HNT. CNC and HNT are environmentally friendly, low/non-toxic, abundant, and inexpensive nanoparticles with a unique size, and chemical properties. TFN membranes were synthesized via in situ interfacial polymerization of m-phenylenediamine (MPD) with trimesoyl chloride (TMC) and the nanoparticles. The control Thin Film Composite (TFC) membranes, and CNC and HNT based TFN membranes were characterized by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and contact angle measurements. The antifouling capacity of CNC based membranes was investigated with a solution of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) as the fouling agent. Also, the leachability of the HNT from the membranes was examined by shaking the membranes in a batch incubator for 48 h, and then tracing the leached out HNT using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Separation characteristics of the membranes were studied by desalination of synthetic brackish water with a cross flow RO filtration system. It was revealed that incorporation of functionalized HNT enhanced the permeate flux without sacrificing the salt rejection (99.1 % ± 0.1 %). Also, incorporation of 0.1% (w/v) CNC doubled the permeate flux (from 30 to 63 L/m2.h at 20 bar) without compromising the salt rejection (97.8%). At the same time, leaching out of HNT from the TFN membranes was decreased as a result of the HNT functionalization and formation of covalent bonds with the TMC. Also, antifouling properties of the CNC-TFN membranes were 11% improved in comparison with control TFC membrane.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Introduction: Tuberculosis (TB) is a serious bacterial infections caused by the Mycobacterium Tuberculosis (MTB) organism affecting mainly the lungs. Occasionally, MTB bacilli may be transported out of the pulmonary region and infect peripheral organs causing extra-pulmonary tuberculosis. Many therapeutic agents were developed over the years to combat TB, however the rapid emergence of resistant strains hampered their use. Furthermore, most of the current anti-TB drugs experience many challenges, which can be summarized in treatment regimen factors, drug-drug interactions, and physicochemical characteristics factors (such as hydrophobicity and low permeability into alveolar macrophages). These challenges have a significant role in treatment failure and the emergence of resistant TB. Due to the lack of newly discovered anti-TB drugs, and the absence of effective vaccines, many scientists have suggested the use of novel modalities for the current anti-TB drugs to enhance their efficacy and overcome some of the drawbacks. One of these modalities is nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems. Most of the anti-TB drugs experience low drug distribution to the lung and particularly alveolar macrophages within which the MTB resides, leading to treatment failure. Employing nanoparticles as drug delivery systems can have a significant impact on improving the pharmacokinetic profile of anti-TB drugs, the feasibility of different routes of administration, enhancing drug permeability, controlled/sustained drug release, and targeting specific disease sites. Collectively, these impacts will aid in enhancing drug concentration at the site of infection and reduce dosing and regimen duration. Dendrimers, such as polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers, are synthetic polymeric nanoparticles that have unique features that afford a dendrimer-conjugate complex the possibility to overcome the most common hurdles associated with drug delivery and treatment of diseases. Obstacles associated with solubility, permeability, inadequate biodistribution associated side effects may be enhanced. Manipulating the outermost surface functional groups with various ligands and polymers, will enhance the dendrimer properties and targeting potential. Aim: This study aims to develop a novel pulmonary delivery system for the anti-TB drug rifampicin using surface-modified G4 PAMAM dendrimer nanoparticles (polyethylene glycol (PEG) or mannose moieties), to improve drug solubility, prolong-release, enhance permeability into the macrophages, and decrease the toxicity of the drug-dendrimer conjugates. Methods: PAMAM dendrimers having increasing concentrations of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) 2 kDa or mannose residues were synthesized. The 4-nitrophenyl chloroformate was used as an activator in the case of PEG functionalization, while for the mannose conjugation the 4-isothiocyanatophenyl alpha-D-mannopyranoside (4-ICPMP) directly interacted with the primary amines of the dendrimer. The conjugated PEG polymers and mannose moieties on the dendrimer periphery were confirmed using FTIR and 1H NMR analytical techniques. Thereafter, rifampicin was loaded into the native and surface-modified dendrimers via a simple dissolution solvent evaporation method. Rifampicin-loaded dendrimers were then characterized using several analytical techniques namely; FTIR, DSC, NMR, SEM, and DLS. The polymer encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and percentage of drug loading (DL%) were determined directly using a validated HPLC method. In vitro drug release was studied at pH 7.4 and pH 4.5. The MTT technique was used to assess the cytotoxicity of the dendrimer formulations against raw 264.7 cell lines. Finally, the uptake of dendrimer nanoparticles by raw macrophages was studied using a flow cytometer and fluorescence microscopy techniques. Results: The percentage coverage of 4.0 G PAMAM dendrimer peripheral with PEG was achieved in a range of 38% - 100%, while for mannose moieties was from 44% - 100%. The EE% of unmodified dendrimer was 7.5% (w/w). The EE% of PEGylated dendrimers ranged from 65.0% - 78.75% (w/w), whereas for mannosylated dendrimers was from 43.43% - 57.91% (w/w). The size of the unloaded dendrimer nanoparticles was less than 25 nm, a gradual increase in the size after drug conjugation followed. The zeta potential of dendrimers was positive with values greater than 12 mV, the nanoparticle's zeta potential decreased upon increasing the density of PEG/mannose and after drug loading. FTIR and NMR data showed that rifampicin molecules were conjugated to the dendrimer at three sites; at the surface amines via electrostatic linkages, within the PEG/mannose, and into the dendrimer interior. SEM images of dendrimer nanoparticles confirmed the spherical shape of particles, and DSC data verified drug entrapment. Drug release was found to be affected by the pH of the medium and the extent of dendrimer functionalization. At the physiologic pH, surface-modified dendrimers showed a slower release rate compared to the unmodified dendrimer and free drug. Among surface-modified dendrimers, the release rate was inversely associated with the density of PEG/mannose molecules. At pH 4.5, a relatively higher drug release from all formulations was observed which suggests a burst release inside the alveolar macrophages. Toxicity studies showed that the unmodified dendrimer experienced time-dependent and concentration-dependent cytotoxicity against raw 264.7 cells. The toxicity gradually decreased upon increasing the density of PEG/mannose, and negligible toxicity was detected for formulations with 100% functionalization. Dendrimer nanoparticles were successfully internalized into raw cells after 24 hrs of incubation. The order of nanoparticles permeability was PEG 100% < PEG 85% < PEG 70% < PEG 49% < PEG 38% < unmodified dendrimer < mannose 44% < mannose 69% < mannose 93% < mannose 100%. The significant increase in the uptake of mannosylated dendrimers was due to the interaction with lectin receptors at the surface of raw macrophages, whereas the lower internalization of PEGylated dendrimers was due to the shielding of the surface positive charges. Conclusion: The in-vitro and ex-vivo data studies suggested that the developed novel surface-modified G4 PAMAM dendrimers are suitable drug carriers in terms of biocompatibility, release behaviour, and site-specific delivery of the anti-TB drug rifampicin.

A administração tópica de colírios é a maneira mais conveniente de se tratar doenças oculares. O grande desafio para a tecnologia farmacêutica é garantir que o fármaco administrado nessa forma farmacêutica chegue ao local de ação em concentrações adequadas, com efeitos adversos reduzidos, tempo de ação prolongado e dose única. Para tanto, o desenvolvimento de sistemas de liberação e de estratégias adequadas de administração tornam-se necessários. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a influência da iontoforese na penetração ocular de dendrímeros de poliamidoamina (PAMAM) de geração 4, com diferentes grupos superficiais (PAMAM G4, catiônico e PAMAM G3.5, aniônico), preparar complexos desses dendrímeros com um anti-inflamatório modelo, a dexametasona (Dexa), e avaliar a influência da associação de dendrímeros e iontoforese na penetração corneal da Dexa em modelos ex vivo e in vivo. Complexos Dexa-PAMAM foram obtidos e caracterizados por espectroscopia de infravermelho e ressonância magnética nuclear (H1-RMN, 13C-RMN e DOSY), espalhamento dinâmico de luz e espectroscopia UV/vis para avaliar a formação dos complexos, seu tamanho e potencial zeta, além de alterações na solubilidade da Dexa. A velocidade de liberação da Dexa dos complexos foi verificada por estudos de liberação in vitro utilizando membrana sintética. A penetração e distribuição dos PAMAMs na córnea e sua influência na penetração da Dexa foi avaliada ex vivo utilizando córnea de porco, microscopia confocal de varredura a laser (MCVL) e cromatografia de ultra performance aliada a um detector de massas para quantificação do fármaco permeado. A citotoxicidade dos PAMAMs foi avaliada em cultura de células epiteliais da retina e células epiteliais da córnea. Por fim, verificou-se in vivo a influência da iontoforese e dos PAMAMs sobre a quantidade de Dexa no humor aquoso de olhos de coelhos. Os estudos de caracterização indicaram que a Dexa foi incorporada aos PAMAMs e que esses complexos apresentaram cerca de 50 nm de tamanho médio pela técnica de NTA, com a presença de partículas pequenas e agregadas quando dispersos em meio fisiológico e potencial zeta de + 6,4 mV e -18,5 mV para Dexa-PAMAM G4 e Dexa-PAMAM G3.5, respectivamente. A solubilidade aparente da Dexa aumentou 3,9 e 10,3 vezes nos complexos com PAMAM G4 e PAMAM G3.5, respectivamente. O PAMAM G3.5 e PAMAM G4 diminuiram 82 e 1,7 vezes, respectivamente, o coeficiente de difusão da Dexa. Os estudos ex vivo indicaram que a iontoforese foi capaz de direcionar os dendrímeros para dentro da córnea, além de aumentar 2,9, 5,6 e 3,0 vezes a quantidade de Dexa permeada a partir das formulações que continham Dexa livre, Dexa-PAMAM G4 e Dexa-PAMAM G3.5, respectivamente. Aumentou também a quantidade de Dexa retida na córnea em aproximadamente 2 vezes para todas as formulações. Os experimentos de citotoxicidade evidenciaram a maior toxicidade do PAMAM G4 e sua dependência da concentração e tempo de incubação. Por fim, os experimentos in vivo mostraram que a iontoforese aumentou a concentração de Dexa no humor aquoso cerca de 2, 2,5 e 6,6 para a Dexa livre, Dexa-PAMAM G4 e Dexa-PAMAM G3.5, respectivamente. Portanto, a associação de dendrímeros PAMAM com a iontoforese representa uma estratégia promissora para a administração tópica direcionada e sustentada de fármacos na córnea. / Topical administration of eye drops is the most convenient way for treatment of eye diseases. The challenge for the pharmaceutical technology is to ensure that the drug administered in the eye drops reaches the site of action in appropriate concentrations with reduced side effects, prolonged effect and single dose. Therefore, the development of drug delivery systems and appropriate strategies become necessary. The objective of this work was to evaluate the influence of iontophoresis in the ocular penetration of generation 4 polyamidoamine dendrimers (PAMAM) with different surface groups (PAMAM G4, cationic, and PAMAM G3.5, anionic), prepare complexes of these dendrimers with an anti-inflammatory drug model, dexamethasone (Dexa), and evaluate the influence of dendrimers and iontophoresis association on Dexa cornea penetration using ex vivo and in vivo models. Dexa-PAMAM complexes were obtained and characterized by infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (H1-NMR, 13C-NMR and DOSY), dynamic light scattering and UV/VIS spectroscopy to evaluate the formation of the complexes, their size and zeta potential, as well as changes in drug solubility. Dexa release rate from complexes was determined from the in vitro release studies using synthetic membrane. The penetration and distribution of PAMAMs into the cornea and their influence in the ex vivo Dexa penetration was assessed using pig\'s cornea, confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) and ultra performance chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer for quantification of the drug permeated. PAMAMs cytotoxicity was assessed in culture of retina epithelial cells and cornea epithelial cells. Finally, the influence of iontophoresis and PAMAMs on Dexa concentration in the aqueous humor of rabbit eyes was evaluated in vivo. The characterization results showed that Dexa was incorporated to PAMAMs and that these complexes had an average size of approximately 50 nm using the NTA technique, with the distribution of small particles and aggregates when dispersed in physiological medium. The zeta potential of Dexa-PAMAM G4 and Dexa PAMAM G3.5 complexes were +6.4 mV and -18.5 mV, respectively. PAMAM G4 and G3.5 PAMAM enhanced Dexa solubility by 3.9 and 10.3-fold, respectively. PAMAM G3.5 and PAMAM G4 decreased by 82 and 1.7-fold Dexa diffusion coefficient. The ex vivo studies indicated that iontophoresis directed dendrimers into the cornea, increasing the amount of Dexa permeated by 2.9, 5.6 and 3.0-fold for the formulations containing free Dexa, Dexa-PAMAM G4 and Dexa-PAMAM G3.5, respectively. Iontophoresis also increased approximately 2-fold the amount of drug retained into the cornea for all formulations. The cytotoxicity experiments revealed that PAMAM G4 toxicity was dependent on the concentration and incubation time. Finally, the in vivo experiments showed that iontophoresis increased Dexa concentration in the aqueous humor by 2, 2.5 and 6.6-fold for free Dexa, Dexa-PAMAM G4 and Dexa-PAMAM-G3.5, respectively. Therefore, the combination of iontophoresis with PAMAM dendrimers represents a promising strategy for targeted and sustained topical drug delivery to the cornea.

This dissertation is divided into three major sections (one on dendrimers, one on tripodal metal ligands and one on a research oriented chemistry curricula) with a primary focus on different types of multicomponent assemblies. In the first chapter, a system is described that used a multicomponent assembly of AT-PAMAM dendrimers and an indicator, carboxyfluorescein, to detect and identify various polyanions at a low micromolar concentration. The system was able to successfully differentiate twelve anions, many of biological interest, including three tricarboxylates. The tricarboxylates were differentiated based primarily on the regiochemistry of the anionic groups. In the second chapter, further studies with AT-PAMAM dendrimers were carried out to provide some understanding of the thermodynamic origins of binding. Utilizing isothermal titration calorimetry, the binding of the dendrimers to large polyanionic dendrons with increasing numbers of charges was studied. Through these studies, the thermodynamic values of the binding events were obtained allowing us to explore the properties of the dendrimers. The cooperativity of the system was measured, and primarily negative cooperativity determined by the entropic contributions was uncovered. As the dendrimers increased in size, the thermodynamic origins of binding were determined to a greater extent by the entropy of binding. In the third chapter, a novel dynamic ligand system for metal binding is described. In the presence of a metal salt, a heterocyclic aldehyde and a secondary amine with two heterocyclic arms reversibly condense to form a hemiaminal with a tripodal metal binding site. This chapter describes studies on the metal binding ability, the variety of metals that will lead to this formation, the effects of anions and the range of aldehydes that can be used are described. Furthermore, the system’s reversibility was explored. Finally, the use of a bistriazole secondary amine was explored. The modular nature of triazole formation could lead to the introduction of additional functionalities. The fourth chapter discusses how the novel ligand system could be used to study the enantiomeric excess (ee) of chiral thiols. Based upon the system’s ability to form a stable hemiaminal thioether, a CD signal could be generated that is proportional to the amount of a particular enantiomer in solution. Using this system, a calibration curve relating CD signal and ee can be generated giving the ee of an unknown solution. In the final chapter, a look at the Freshman Research Initiative will be carried out with a focus on the ability to teach basic skills in an introductory laboratory through research. Four different skills or techniques will be explored through three different FRI streams,x and how they teach the four skills. Finally, analysis of the success of the program, particularly students’ success in the next laboratory course in the sequence, is discussed, and a model for adopting this type of teaching at other universities is given. / text

A administração tópica de colírios é a maneira mais conveniente de se tratar doenças oculares. O grande desafio para a tecnologia farmacêutica é garantir que o fármaco administrado nessa forma farmacêutica chegue ao local de ação em concentrações adequadas, com efeitos adversos reduzidos, tempo de ação prolongado e dose única. Para tanto, o desenvolvimento de sistemas de liberação e de estratégias adequadas de administração tornam-se necessários. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a influência da iontoforese na penetração ocular de dendrímeros de poliamidoamina (PAMAM) de geração 4, com diferentes grupos superficiais (PAMAM G4, catiônico e PAMAM G3.5, aniônico), preparar complexos desses dendrímeros com um anti-inflamatório modelo, a dexametasona (Dexa), e avaliar a influência da associação de dendrímeros e iontoforese na penetração corneal da Dexa em modelos ex vivo e in vivo. Complexos Dexa-PAMAM foram obtidos e caracterizados por espectroscopia de infravermelho e ressonância magnética nuclear (H1-RMN, 13C-RMN e DOSY), espalhamento dinâmico de luz e espectroscopia UV/vis para avaliar a formação dos complexos, seu tamanho e potencial zeta, além de alterações na solubilidade da Dexa. A velocidade de liberação da Dexa dos complexos foi verificada por estudos de liberação in vitro utilizando membrana sintética. A penetração e distribuição dos PAMAMs na córnea e sua influência na penetração da Dexa foi avaliada ex vivo utilizando córnea de porco, microscopia confocal de varredura a laser (MCVL) e cromatografia de ultra performance aliada a um detector de massas para quantificação do fármaco permeado. A citotoxicidade dos PAMAMs foi avaliada em cultura de células epiteliais da retina e células epiteliais da córnea. Por fim, verificou-se in vivo a influência da iontoforese e dos PAMAMs sobre a quantidade de Dexa no humor aquoso de olhos de coelhos. Os estudos de caracterização indicaram que a Dexa foi incorporada aos PAMAMs e que esses complexos apresentaram cerca de 50 nm de tamanho médio pela técnica de NTA, com a presença de partículas pequenas e agregadas quando dispersos em meio fisiológico e potencial zeta de + 6,4 mV e -18,5 mV para Dexa-PAMAM G4 e Dexa-PAMAM G3.5, respectivamente. A solubilidade aparente da Dexa aumentou 3,9 e 10,3 vezes nos complexos com PAMAM G4 e PAMAM G3.5, respectivamente. O PAMAM G3.5 e PAMAM G4 diminuiram 82 e 1,7 vezes, respectivamente, o coeficiente de difusão da Dexa. Os estudos ex vivo indicaram que a iontoforese foi capaz de direcionar os dendrímeros para dentro da córnea, além de aumentar 2,9, 5,6 e 3,0 vezes a quantidade de Dexa permeada a partir das formulações que continham Dexa livre, Dexa-PAMAM G4 e Dexa-PAMAM G3.5, respectivamente. Aumentou também a quantidade de Dexa retida na córnea em aproximadamente 2 vezes para todas as formulações. Os experimentos de citotoxicidade evidenciaram a maior toxicidade do PAMAM G4 e sua dependência da concentração e tempo de incubação. Por fim, os experimentos in vivo mostraram que a iontoforese aumentou a concentração de Dexa no humor aquoso cerca de 2, 2,5 e 6,6 para a Dexa livre, Dexa-PAMAM G4 e Dexa-PAMAM G3.5, respectivamente. Portanto, a associação de dendrímeros PAMAM com a iontoforese representa uma estratégia promissora para a administração tópica direcionada e sustentada de fármacos na córnea. / Topical administration of eye drops is the most convenient way for treatment of eye diseases. The challenge for the pharmaceutical technology is to ensure that the drug administered in the eye drops reaches the site of action in appropriate concentrations with reduced side effects, prolonged effect and single dose. Therefore, the development of drug delivery systems and appropriate strategies become necessary. The objective of this work was to evaluate the influence of iontophoresis in the ocular penetration of generation 4 polyamidoamine dendrimers (PAMAM) with different surface groups (PAMAM G4, cationic, and PAMAM G3.5, anionic), prepare complexes of these dendrimers with an anti-inflammatory drug model, dexamethasone (Dexa), and evaluate the influence of dendrimers and iontophoresis association on Dexa cornea penetration using ex vivo and in vivo models. Dexa-PAMAM complexes were obtained and characterized by infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (H1-NMR, 13C-NMR and DOSY), dynamic light scattering and UV/VIS spectroscopy to evaluate the formation of the complexes, their size and zeta potential, as well as changes in drug solubility. Dexa release rate from complexes was determined from the in vitro release studies using synthetic membrane. The penetration and distribution of PAMAMs into the cornea and their influence in the ex vivo Dexa penetration was assessed using pig\'s cornea, confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) and ultra performance chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer for quantification of the drug permeated. PAMAMs cytotoxicity was assessed in culture of retina epithelial cells and cornea epithelial cells. Finally, the influence of iontophoresis and PAMAMs on Dexa concentration in the aqueous humor of rabbit eyes was evaluated in vivo. The characterization results showed that Dexa was incorporated to PAMAMs and that these complexes had an average size of approximately 50 nm using the NTA technique, with the distribution of small particles and aggregates when dispersed in physiological medium. The zeta potential of Dexa-PAMAM G4 and Dexa PAMAM G3.5 complexes were +6.4 mV and -18.5 mV, respectively. PAMAM G4 and G3.5 PAMAM enhanced Dexa solubility by 3.9 and 10.3-fold, respectively. PAMAM G3.5 and PAMAM G4 decreased by 82 and 1.7-fold Dexa diffusion coefficient. The ex vivo studies indicated that iontophoresis directed dendrimers into the cornea, increasing the amount of Dexa permeated by 2.9, 5.6 and 3.0-fold for the formulations containing free Dexa, Dexa-PAMAM G4 and Dexa-PAMAM G3.5, respectively. Iontophoresis also increased approximately 2-fold the amount of drug retained into the cornea for all formulations. The cytotoxicity experiments revealed that PAMAM G4 toxicity was dependent on the concentration and incubation time. Finally, the in vivo experiments showed that iontophoresis increased Dexa concentration in the aqueous humor by 2, 2.5 and 6.6-fold for free Dexa, Dexa-PAMAM G4 and Dexa-PAMAM-G3.5, respectively. Therefore, the combination of iontophoresis with PAMAM dendrimers represents a promising strategy for targeted and sustained topical drug delivery to the cornea.

This thesis is devoted to the investigation of mechanical properties and self-assembly process of materials at the nanoscale. Various nanostructured materials such as nanoparticles, nanotubes, nanowires and thin films are used as constituent elements of nanodevices. Hence, knowledge of the mechanical properties of materials at the nanoscale is extremely important for understanding their functionality in nanodevices. Mechanical properties of nanostructured materials may significantly differ from those of their bulk counterparts due to the high surface to volume ratio in nanostruc-tures. We particularly focus on the role of the surface region on the stiffness of nanomaterials. We have shown that the stiffness of a nanomaterial can be tuned over a wide range by introducing appropriate coating on the nanostructure surface. We have also explored the effects of the surface region on the stability of various phases in a nanostructure. In the second part of this thesis, we have described the self-assembly process of nanostructures mediated by drendrimers. Self-assembly techniques are frequently used to decorate nanostructures into specific networks. The motivation of this study is to investigate the mechanisms which control the effective interaction and the inter-particle distance between nanoparticle-dendrimer compos-ites. Control over the inter-particle separation is very important since it has a strong influence on the electronic and optical properties of the nanostructures. In the following paragraphs, we sum-marize the results of our study. We start with a brief introduction to the mechanical properties and self-assembly process of nanostructures in the first chapter. A brief review of the work done on these topics in the recent past is presented in this chapter. We discuss the results and conclusions of various experimental and numerical studies on these topics. We also mention the motivation for the studies we have carried out. At the end, we briefly describe the numerical methods (molecular dynamics (MD) and density functional theory (DFT)) which have been used in our investigations. In the second chapter, we discuss the effects of the surface region on the mechanical properties of nanostructures. We have investigated the size and growth direction dependence of the mechanical properties of ZnS nanowires and thin films as a case study. We observe that the Young’s modulus of nanowires and thin films strongly depends on their size and growth direction. This size and growth direction dependence of the stiffness of nanostructured materials can be explained in terms of their surface modifications. Since the energy of the surface region is usually higher than that of the core region in a nanostructure, the surface atoms move their positions to minimize the surface energy. As a result, bond lengths at the surface region are usually different from their bulk values. We observe that in ZnS nanowires and thin films, the average bond length at the surface region is lower than that in the core region which remains unchanged from its bulk value. This decrease in the bond length (or equivalently increase in the bond energy) increases the effective stiffness of the entire nanostructure. As the size of the nanowire/thin film increases, the effect of the surface region gradually decreases and hence the Young’s modulus value converges to the bulk value. Since the surface region has a strong influence on the mechanical properties of nanostructures, the stiffness of a nanostructure can be tuned by modifying the surface region with other materials. In chapter three, we have shown that the stiffness of ZnS nanowires can be tuned by introducing a thin CdS shell on top of the ZnS surface. In general, the stiffness of a nanostructure can be increased (decreased) by coating the surface region with a stiffer (less stiff) material. However, the stiffness of the core/shell nanostructures strongly depends on the properties of the interface between the core and the shell. We observe that the binding energy between the core and shell regions is relatively low due to the lattice mismatch at the interface region of core/shell nanostructures. This lower binding energy strongly affects the stiffness of core/shell nanostructures. We have also shown that thermal properties such as thermal conductivity and melting temperature of core/shell structures can be tuned by changing the coating material. In chapter four, we discuss the effects of the surface region on the stability of various phases in a nanostructure. The surface atoms may stabilize a particular phase in a nanostructure which is not a stable phase in the bulk material. In this chapter, we investigate the stability of the h-MgO phase, an intermediate structure found during the wurtzite to rock salt transformation, in CdSe nanostructures. We observe that this five-fold coordinated phase is more stable at lower temperatures and smaller sizes of the nanowires. The appearance of this phase has not been observed till now in experiments. We show that this phase is not stable for larger CdSe nanocrystals on which the experiments have been done. In the rest of the thesis, we have presented the results of our studies of self-assembly of nanostructures mediated by DNAs and dendrimers. First we describe in chapter five the nature of the effective interaction between two PAMAM dendrimers. Dendrimers are frequently used to coat surfaces of nanoparticles to prevent the nanoparticles from aggregation. The interaction between such nanoparticle-dendrimer composites depends strongly on the nature of the effective interac-tion between dendrimers. We have used fully atomistic MD simulations to calculate the potential of mean force (PMF) between two PAMAM dendrimers. We show that the effective interaction strongly depends on the size (generation) and protonation level of the dendrimers. The PMF profiles of nonprotonated dendrimers show a global minimum which represents the attractive nature of the interaction between the dendrimers up to a certain center-to-center distance. On the other hand, the interaction between protonated dendrimers is repulsive throughout their interaction re-gion. The PMF profiles are fitted very well by a sum of an exponential and a Gaussian function. This observation is in contradiction with some of the results of existing coarse-grained simulations which predicted the effective interaction between dendrimers to be Gaussian. Our atomistic simulation which includes all the local fluctuations is expected to give more accurate results. Information about the effective interaction between two dendrimers helps in understanding how dendrimer molecules can be used to control the interaction strength and the preferred inter-particle distance between two nanostructures. In chapter six, we discuss the effective interaction between two dendrimer grafted gold nanoparticles. We observe that dendrimer molecules can get adsorbed spontaneously on the surface of a gold nanoparticle. These grafted dendrimers significantly alter the interaction between the gold nanoparticles. We have explored the effects of proto-nation level and the density of the grafted dendrimers on the effective interaction between two gold nanoparticle-dendrimer composites. We observe that these nanoparticle-dendrimer composites at-tract each other at low grafting density. However, the interaction strength and the inter-particle distance at the minimum of the potential are much lower and higher, respectively than those between two bare gold nanoparticles. Interestingly at higher grafting density, the nature of the interaction between the nanocomposites depends on the protonation level of the grafted dendrimers. Nanoparticles grafted with nonprotonated dendrimers still attract each other but with lower inter-action strength and higher inter-particle distance compared to the values for low grafting density. On the other hand, nanocomposites grafted with protonated dendrimers repel each other at high grafting density. Thus we show that the effective interaction and the optimal inter-particle distance between the nanostructures can be tuned over a wide range by using a suitable grafting density and protonation level of the dendrimers. In the seventh chapter, we describe a strategy to assemble dendrimers with the help of sin-gle stranded DNA (ssDNA). We attach an ssDNA to one dendrimer and a complementary ssDNA to a second dendrimer. These two complementary ssDNAs bind with each other through base pair formation to assemble the dendrimers into a single structure. The complementary ssDNAs form a dsDNA which is rigid enough to maintain the inter-dendrimer distance almost the same as the length of the DNA. The inter-dendrimer distance can be tuned by changing the DNA length. However, this method strongly depends on the protonation level of the dendrimers. It works well only for nonprotonated dendrimers. Since the protonated dendrimers are positively charged, they strongly interact with the negatively charged ssDNAs through electrostatic interaction. As a result, ssDNAs wrap the dendrimer surface and hence the inter-dendrimer distance can not be controlled. We have also verified that this method works for multiple nonprotonated dendrimers as well. In the final chapter of this thesis, we summarize the main results and conclude with a brief discussion of future directions of research on the problems considered in the thesis.

Use of metal based anticancer medication began with the clinical approval of cisplatin in 1978. Research led to the development of six platinum based drug candidates which are in use around the world. However there is a great need to develop better treatment strategies. The present work entitled “Cytotoxicity of Metal Based Anticancer Active Complexes and Their Targeted Delivery Using Nanoparticles” is an effort to prepare cytotoxic metal complexes based on platinum(IV) and copper(II) and deliver them selectively to cancer cells using a targeting ligand, biotin, with two different delivery vehicles, viz. PEGylated polyamidoamine dendrimer (PAMAM) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). Chapter 1 provides a brief introduction to cancer and its characteristic features, followed by a short description about different treatment modalities in clinical practice. An account of the development of anticancer drugs starting from purely organic drugs to the field of metal based anticancer drugs is discussed. An overview of the available targeting strategies are discussed with specific examples. The section ends with the scope of the present work. Platinum based anticancer drugs currently in use contain platinum in the +2 oxidation state. These drugs showed side effects and are often ineffective against resistant cells, especially in the latter stages of treatment. A recent focus of metal based anticancer drug research is the development of platinum(IV) systems which shows promise to have greater activity in cancer cells in a reducing environment. Reported platinum(IV) dual drugs contain the components of “cisplatin” or an analogue along with an active organic drug. But there are no known dual drugs based on platinum(IV) that would generate a cytotoxic metal complex along with cisplatin. In Chapter 2, a bimetallic dual drug (M4) (Figure 1), the first of its kind, with components of cisplatin and copper bis(thiosemicarbazone) has been prepared (Figure 1). The components and the bimetallic complex were characterized using several spectroscopic techniques. The dual drug M4 was found to be highly cytotoxic (IC50 1.3 M) against HeLa cells and was better than cisplatin (IC50 6.8 M). The bimetallic complex turned out to be better than the mixture (IC50 7.2 M) of individual drugs which indicated possible synergism of the released cisplatin and the copper bis(thiosemicarbazone) from the dual drug. Figure 1: Structure of the platinum(IV) and copper bis(thiosemicarbazone) complexes. A novel approach towards conjugation of platinum(IV) drugs to a carrier has been developed using a malonate moiety (Figure 2). The bis(butyric acid) complex, Pt(NH3)2(OCOC3H7)2Cl2 (M1), was taken as model complex to demonstrate the conjugation strategy. The complex M4 was also conjugated to the partially PEGylated 5th generation PAMAM dendrimers. Figure 2: Schematic representation of the platinum(IV) drug conjugated PAMAM dendrimer. The cytotoxicity of M4 was reduced to a small extent on conjugation to the dendrimer. In the presence of 5 mM sodium ascorbate as a reducing agent, sustained release (40 %) of the drug was shown to occur over a period of 48 h by the drug release study. The reduction in cytotoxicity of the dendrimer conjugates could be due to incomplete release of the active drug. Unfortunately, no enhanced activity was observed with the additional targeting ligand, biotin. The drug uptake study revealed that the dendrimer conjugates were successful in entering cancer cells. There was no preferential uptake with biotin conjugated dendrimers which explained the similar cytotoxicity of dendrimer conjugates with and without biotin. Different delivery vehicles showed varied efficiency in delivering the pay load (drugs) to the cancer site. In this connection, PEGylated gold nanoparticles have shown good promise as a drug delivery vehicle. In Chapter 3, M1 and M4 are both conjugated to malonate functionalized PEGylated gold nanoparticles (30 nm). Biotin was also attached to the AuNPs for targeting HeLa cells. Figure 3: Schematic representation of the platinum(IV) drug and biotin conjugated AuNPs. The AuNPs were highly stable in water without agglomeration. There was no shift in the Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) band after conjugation of the drug molecules and targeting ligands. TEM images and DLS measurements showed there was no change in particle size. Drug conjugated AuNPs were also very stable in high salt concentrations as well as over a large range of pH. AuNPs with M1 were found to be less cytotoxic than the parent drug. Biotinylated AuNPs with M1 were more potent than non-biotinylated nanoparticles and increased cytotoxicity (35 %) was observed with biotin conjugation. Surprisingly, the enhanced activity of biotinylated AuNPs could not be correlated to the drug uptake study. The cytotoxicity of the bimetallic dual drug containing AuNPs were about 10-fold less and no increased activity was observed with the biotinylated conjugates. The reduced activity of AuNPs with the bimetallic drug was due to incomplete release from the AuNPs (20 % release after 48 h). But the release kinetics was very slow and sustained which might increase in vivo activity. The unexpected lower activity of biotinylated conjugates with copper bis(thiosemicarbazone) was suggestive of interference between bis(thiosemicarbazone) complex and the biotin receptor resulting in reduced drug uptake. Copper bis(thiosemicarbazone) complexes hold very good promise as a class of non-platinum anticancer drug candidates. However, they lack selectivity towards malignant cells. Recently, CuATSM has shown hypoxia selectivity and very good cytotoxicity resulting in 64CuATSM being used in advanced stages of clinical trials for imaging hypoxic cells. In Chapter 4, a copper bis(thiosemicarbazone) complex analogous to Cu(ATSM) with a redox active cleavable disulfide linker and a terminal carboxylic acid group (CuATSM-SS-COOH) was synthesised and characterised spectroscopically. The complex was highly cytotoxic and has an IC50 value (6.9 M) similar to that of cisplatin against HeLa cells. The complex was conjugated to PEGylated gold nanoparticles by amide coupling between the acid group from the drug molecule and the amine on the AuNPs (20 nm) for smart drug delivery. The gold nanoparticles were decorated with biotin for targeted delivery to the HeLa cells. Figure 4: Schematic representation of the CuATSM-SS-COOH and biotin decorated AuNPs. The CuATSM-SS-COOH was insoluble in water but conjugation to PEGylated gold nanoparticles made it water soluble. The drug molecules and biotin conjugated AuNPs were highly stable which was confirmed by TEM and DLS measurements. Similar to the study described in the previous chapter, these AuNPs were also stable in a wide range of pH and salt concentrations. In vitro glutathione (GSH) triggered release study demonstrated substantial release of the cytotoxic agent from the AuNPs (60 %) over a period of 48 h. In vitro cell viability study with HeLa cells showed reduced cytotoxicity (IC50 15 M) of AuNPs with and without biotin containing drug conjugates relative to the parent copper complex (IC50 6.9 M). The reduction of the cytotoxicity correlated well with the released amount of the active drug from the nanoconjugates over the same time period. In vivo studies demonstrated the effectiveness of these nanoparticle carriers as suitable vehicles as they exhibited nearly four-fold reduction of tumor volume without significant loss in body weight. Moreover, the biotin targeted nanoparticle showed significant (p < 0.5) reduction in tumor volume compared to the non-targeted gold nanoparticles. Thus, this smart linking strategy Can be extended to other cytotoxic complexes that suffer from non-specificity, low aqueous solubility and toxicity. Multinuclear anticancer active complexes do not act in the same way as that of their corresponding mononuclear analogues. In the case of multinuclear platinum complexes, the activity not only depends on the active moiety but also on the spacer length between the moieties. In Chapter 5, a series of multinuclear copper bis(thiosemicarbazone) complexes were prepared and characterised using different techniques. Figure 5: General structures of binuclear copper bis(thiosemicarbazone) complexes. All the complexes showed redox activity and have a very high negative reduction potential, i.e. these compounds would not be easily reduced in the biological medium and would remain as copper(II) species. As the concentration of the reducing agents are more within cancer cells, once these complexes are inside cells they would be reduced to Cu(I). These compounds were shown to be highly lipophilic from the large log P values. Unfortunately, these binuclear complexes were less active than similar mononuclear complexes. One possible reason for the reduced cytotoxicity of these complexes could be adherence of the complexes to the cell membrane due to the high lipophilicity of these complexes. Out of five different methylene spacers between two bis(thiosemicrarbazone) moieties, the complex with a three carbon spacer was shown to be the most active against HeLa cells. The complexes with five and six methylene spacers turn out to be noncytotoxic. Further experiments are necessary to reveal the mechanism of action in these complexes. In summary, bimetallic complexes can be very active and may be a way of overcoming drug resistance in platinum based therapy. A dual drug can be delivered using a malonate moiety and a disulfide linker. Gold nanoparticles are good delivery vehicles for these dual drugs and show great potential for improvement and translation to the next stage. (For figures pl refer the abstract pdf file)