Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large group of anthropogenic compounds with unique properties, including chemical inertness, resistance to many degradation processes and amphiphilic structure. This makes them useful in a range of applications, but also very persistent and bioaccumulative in nature, where PFAS have been linked to adverse health effects in both animals and humans. There are regulations for PFAS, including the REACH regulation and Stockholm Convention, but for now PFAS are monitored individually. This poses a problem since many regulated, long-chain PFAS today are being replaced with unregulated, short-chain homologues with similar hazardous properties.For water remediation of PFAS, a popular and effective sorption technique for their removal is activated carbon (AC), with its close to 100% sorption efficiency. This study focuses on the efficiency of more sustainable materials like bark, steel slag and biochar to sorb eleven different PFAS (PFAS-11) from contaminated water. In this work, contaminated water passed through different constellations of sorbent materials by flow-through experiments, underwent solid-phase extraction (SPE) using a weak anion-exchange (WAX) adsorbent for sample clean-up, and was lastly prepared for analysis using an ultra-performance liquid chromatograph (UPLC) coupled to a quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer (MS/MS).For the different sorbent constellations tested, perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) was removed to the highest degree, with an average removal of 70%. When studying the sum of PFAS-11 between the tested sorption constellations, the bark tests sorbed around 20%, the steel slag combinations sorbed between 30-40% and biochar sorbed 43% of the initial PFAS-11 concentration (1 750 ng/L) in the contaminated water. None of these materials achieved an efficient enough sorption to go below the Swedish PFAS-11 drinking water limit value of 90 ng/L, so the results are for the time being suggested more as complementary, low-cost sorption techniques. Further research is recommended to extensively be able to implement more sustainable sorbents with higher sorbing efficiencies.

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Närvaron av PFAS (per- och polyfluorerade alkylsubstanser) i miljön och i vårt dricksvatten blir alltmer uppmärksammad i Sverige och världen. Denna undersökning gick dels ut på att undersöka föroreningssituationen av bland annat PFAS på brandövningsplatsen i Vetlanda enligt Naturvårdsverkets metodik för inventering av förorenade områden (MIFO) fas 2 och utfördes av Njudung Energi på uppdrag av Höglandets räddningstjänstförbund och Vetlanda kommun. En andra del utgjordes av ett laborationsförsök där reningskapaciteten för PFAS med fyra olika adsorbenter jämfördes. Vetlanda brandövningsplats påvisade kraftigt förhöjda halter PFOS (perfluoroktansulfonsyra) och ∑PFAS11 i grundvatten (8,9 µg/l och 27,2 µg/l respektive) och i jord (0,82 mg/kg TS PFOS). Halten PFOS i grundvatten var över 45 ng/l och i jord översteg halten 0,02 mg/kg TS som är SGI:s preliminära riktvärden för PFOS (Pettersson et al. 2015). I ytvattenrecipienten var halten PFOS över det rekommenderade årsmedelvärdet enligt EU:s miljökvalitetsnorm för inlandsvatten (65 ng/l). Ytvattenrecipienten anses särskild skyddsvärd då den mynnar ut i Emån, som har höga naturvärden och används som vattentäkt. Halten koppar och bly i jord översteg Naturvårdsverkets generella riktvärden för mindre känslig markanvändning (200 mg/kg TS och 400 mg/kg TS respektive). Objektet Vetlanda brandövningsplats bedöms utgöra riskklass 1 enligt MIFO fas 2, vilket innebär en mycket stor risk. Som åtgärd föreslås grundvattenpumpning och behandling för att åtgärda föroreningsnivån med avseende på PFAS i grundvattnet, fortsatt provtagning för att avgränsa föroreningen i jord samt schaktsanering av de förorenade jordmassorna för att förhindra fortsatt urlakning till grundvattnet. I laborationsförsöket jämfördes de två konventionella filtermaterialen granulärt aktivt kol (GAC) och jonbytarmassa (AE) med grillkol och torv, två relativt billiga material. Labbförsöket utfördes som ett kolonnförsök med varierande pH-värden samt som ett försök med förlängd exponeringstid. Resultatet visar att AE och torv gynnas av ett sänkt pH-värde och av en förlängd exponeringstid. GAC uppvisade bäst reningsgrad under samtliga försök, med fullständig adsorption av PFOS och ∑PFAS11 för kolonnförsöken. Torv avlägsnade 65% PFOS vid 10 dagars exponeringstid och grillkol avlägsnade omkring 50% PFOS i kolonnförsöken. Försöket innehåller endast ett fåtal provtagningspunkter och ytterligare studier med grillkol och torv krävs för att fastställa deras eventuella potential som adsorbenter för att rena PFAS i grundvatten.

Water pollution is a profound ecological concern, exerting detrimental effects on human well-being, ecological systems, and animal life. Among the emerging contaminants that critically influence water quality and have garnered substantial scientific interest in recent times are per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). It is crucial to investigate the de- velopment of an easy technique for PFAS detection and measurement that can be used for quick analysis. This thesis explores the possibility to use amine-functionalized mesoporous carbon as an adsorbent to develop a detection method based on sequential adsorption of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and a dye, Rose Bengal, onto the adsorbent. The hypothesis is that the concentration of non-adsorbed dye is dependent on the amount of PFAS present, making the color intensity of the remaining solution proportional to the PFAS concentration. Mesoporous carbon was chosen as the adsorbent due to their high specific surface area, providing a high adsorption capacity, and the potential to functionalize the surface with amine groups which will attract the PFAS. Rose Bengal was selected as a concentration indicator as it has been shown that it can be used as a proxy for PFAS. In this study, the most prevalent PFAS compounds, namely PFOA and PFOS, were investigated. Prior to testing, the adsorbent underwent characterization using diverse techniques to show the porosity and particle morphology. The adsorption experiments encompassed varying PFAS concentrations and a range of dye solutions to determine the detection range, the powder-to-solution ratio necessary for discernible differentiation, and the adsorption or saturation time for both PFAS and dye. This thesis concludes that it was not possible to detect neither PFOA nor PFOS in the range of 0.1 pg/mL to 1 μg/mL with the setup, even though Rose Bengal adsorption could be detected down to 0.6 μg/mL. It was further observed that amine-functionalized hard templated mesoporous carbon has a higher adsorption capacity compared to the soft templated material.

This thesis critically examines recent developments in Swedish tort law, regarding compensability of an elevated risk of future harm as a distinct injury in itself. The theme of the study is based upon a recent ruling by the Swedish Supreme Court on December 5, 2023, marking the first instance of Swedish legal scrutiny on the concept of elevated risks as compensable injuries. The case involved a compensation claim for personal injury arising from an exposure to PFAS substances and it is highlighting the challenges in both categorizing as well as compensating elevated risks of future harm in a Swedish legal context. The ruling clarified that the mere presence of an elevated risk cannot constitute a personal injury according to traditional Swedish tort law.  The primary objective of this study is to stimulate a broader legal discussion on how Swedish tort law should and could navigate the complex notion of compensating injuries in the form of elevated risks of future injury. The study unfolds in two interconnected parts. Initially, it scrutinizes the conventional concept of personal injury under Swedish law as well as the relationship between the elevated risk of future injury and the traditional personal injury concept. Subsequently, the focus shifts to discussing the need for incorporating the concept of elevated risks as a new category of compensable injury under Swedish tort law, with the legal approach adopted in the United States serving as backdrop for the discussion.  Using a legal dogmatic approach as a primary research method, the study involves an analysis of legal sources to comprehend the current legal landscape and to identify the need for potential reforms. The study also includes a comparative aspect, drawing upon American legal sources, to shed light on how injuries in the form of elevated risks are treated in various American jurisdictions. The American approach, as presented in this study, consists of a two-step process for qualifying elevated risks as compensable injuries. The discussion also touches upon the compensation issue for risk injuries, highlighting the challenge of compensating a potential injury before it manifests. The "loss of chance" doctrine, which is adopted in American law, is introduced to provide a predictable compensation model for lost opportunities as well as elevated risks.  The presentation of the American approach serves as a basis for a discussion of several considerations and issues that the Swedish legislator must address if compensation for risk-based injuries were to be established in Swedish law.  The discussions set forth in this thesis extend to the challenges arising when valuing an elevated risk as a form of personal injury and the complexities of fitting such risks into existing compensation frameworks. The discussions conclude that the concept of an elevated risk as an injury in itself should be classified as a distinct type of compensable injury under Swedish law. After this conclusion the focus of the discussion shifts towards the legislator’s challenging task of establishing a rational compensation model for this type of injury in Swe- dish tort law. The discussion includes some aspects that motivate the need for legislation, as well as reasons speaking against it, which highlights the complexity of balancing the legislator’s considerations in the context of Swedish legal traditions and systems.  In summary, this thesis serves the purpose of contributing to the legal discourse on compensating injuries arising from elevated risks within Swedish tort law. Using a legal dogmatic methodology, including comparative elements, it analyzes recent legal developments, explores challenges, draws comparisons with international practices, and reviews potential legal reforms. The study aims to inform and encourage Swedish legal practitioners, policymakers and scholars to initiate a discussion about the concept of compensating elevated risks, as well as advocate for a nuanced legislative approach to address these challenges effectively.

Background: Several environmental risk factors have been implicated in the pathogenesis ofinflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and might cause an altered barrier function, a hallmark ofIBD. Recent evidence suggests that patients with late-onset ulcerative colitis (UC) have anincreased serum level of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), one of the major chemical groupscontaminating our diet. A potential route via which PFAS might contribute to the disease is bydisrupting the intestinal barrier. However, whether intake of PFAS dose induce an increasedintestinal permeability is still unknown. Aim: The aim of the thesis is to investigate the effect of in vivo exposure toperfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOA) in mice on colon barrier function. The hypothesis is thatlong time exposure to PFOA contributes to the development of late-onset ulcerative colitis bydisrupting the intestinal barrier. Methods: This controlled laboratory study used 7 mice exposed to PFOA in vivo via thedrinking water for 3 weeks and a control group of 9 mice for reference. Colon tissue from themice were excised for assessing intestinal permeability using the Ussing chamber method.FITCH-dextran was used as a macromolecular probe in the Ussing chamber to investigate themucosal-serosal flux across the intestinal mucosa to see macromolecular permeability andelectrophysiological parameters were assessed to investigate tight junction permeability,stimulated secretory response to Carbachol and active ion transport. Results: Although there were no statistically significant results between the PFOA treated groupand the control group, a trend of increased secretory response to Carbachol was observed in thePFOA group compared to the controls. Conclusion: The study demonstrates that in vivo exposure to PFOA does not induce an alteredintestinal barrier in terms of electrophysiological parameters and macromolecular flux. Futureexperiments are needed with a larger population and potentially genetically predisposed mice.Key

Per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are found ubiquitously in the environment across the globe.These substances have high persistence due to the strong carbon and fluorine bond. In the aquaticenvironment, due to high persistence, these substances don’t decay easily and are detected on the surfaceas well as in groundwater sources. Human exposure to PFAS has been observed due to ingestion of PFAScontaminated food and water which has an adverse effect on the human health. High concentrations ofPerfluoroalkyl Octanoic Sulphonate (PFOS) and Perfluoroalkyl Hexanoic Sulphonate (PFHxS) wereobserved in Lake Ekoln. The main aim of this study was to analyze the spread of PFOS and PFHxS in thelake. Hydrodynamic modelling of flow and water quality modelling in the lake was performed usingMIKE 3 FM software for the evaluation of the spread pattern of PFOS and PFHxS in the lake. Twoscenarios with the different mass fluxes of PFOS and PFHxS for Fyrisån were assumed for investigatingthe uncertainties and influence of contribution from Fyrisån. Additionally, conductivity from differentinflows was modelled as a passive tracer for understanding the water quality and the circulation in thelake. The results of the simulation showed that Fyrisån and Kungsängsverket are major contributors of PFOSand PFHxS to the lake. Similarly, the analysis of the current spread of PFOS and PFHxS shows that theuncertainty in the model is high and is dependent mainly on the assumption of mass flux from theFyrisån. Due to the lack of sampling data on the concentration of PFOS and PFHxS, it was difficult to geta reliable assumption for the mass flux from the Fyrisån. From the study, it was identified that thesampled concentration of PFOS and PFHxS also had certain variations which might be due to theinfluence of concentration from different sources and processes. Likewise, the simulation result of PFOSand PFHxS was observed to have a similar pattern of spread. Although PFOS is a long-chain PFAS andPFHxS is a short-chain PFAS and they have different physio-chemical properties, the spread patternswere observed to be similar. As only the hydrodynamic processes were influencing the simulation for thespread of PFOS and PFHxS in the lake and other physiochemical processes such as sedimentation andbioaccumulation were not included in the model, the simulated PFAS results were found similar. To conclude, the study shows that the spread of PFOS and PFHxS is mainly influenced by the flow andconcentration in Fyrisån. Also, higher uncertainty in the model performance was observed due to theissue of reliable mass flux estimation from Fyrisån. Similarly, the influence of processes such assedimentation and bio accumulation are necessary to be included in the model for analysis of spread ofPFAS with different physio-chemical properties.

Vad är en fysisk personskada? Eller rättare sagt; hur kan begreppet definieras? Någon form avnedsatthet på en människas kropp uppstår minst någon gång och för många flera gånger underlivets gång. Det kan därför tyckas vara givet att kunna förstå vad en fysisk personskada är.Ofta är det lätt men ibland kan det vara svårt, såsom det blev när en ökad risk för sjukdomuppstod för invånare i Ronneby kommun. En viktig anledning till att uppsatsen skrevs vardomen från Högsta domstolen (HD) i mål T 486-23 som just handlar om de drabbade iRonneby. En förhöjd risk för sjukdom kan även drabba ett djur, vilket juridiskt är en sak. Ett syfte meddenna uppsats är därför att tillföra mer kunskap om vad både begreppet ”fysisk personskada”och ”sakskada” innebär. Ytterligare ett syfte är att öka läsarens förståelse för vilketförsäkringsskydd som en person har när han eller hon alternativt dennes djur har orsakats enökad risk för sjukdom. En slutsats som kan dras av uppsatsen är att det finns en huvudregel och en undantagsregelom när en ökad risk för sjukdom utgör en ”fysisk personskada”. Huvudregeln är att en ökadrisk för sjukdom inte kan utgöra en fysisk personskada. Undantagsregeln är att en ökad riskför sjukdom kan utgöra en fysisk personskada när risken för att drabbas av sjukdomen harökat markant och sjukdomen i sig är hälsofarlig. Reglerna grundas på domen i mål T 486-23.På grund av domen har tolkningen av begreppet ”fysisk personskada” till viss del ändrats.Ändringen kommer troligtvis dock bara att påverka de rättsfall som innehåller lika ovanligaomständigheter som de i mål T 486-23, vilket sannolikt endast är ett fåtal. Det finns några till slutsatser i uppsatsen. En slutsats är att den undantagsregel, som gällerbegreppet ”fysisk personskada”, även är tillämpbar för att kunna tolka att en sakskadaföreligger. En annan slutsats är att domen i PFAS-fallet har utvidgat innebörden av bådebegreppet ”fysisk personskada” och ”sakskada”. Ytterligare en slutsats är att en person sällanblir berättigad ersättning ur en försäkring när han eller hon löper en ökad risk för sjukdom.Det är mer sannolikt att en person har rätt till försäkringsersättning när hans eller hennes djurhar blivit åsamkad av en ökad risk för sjukdom. Den försäkring som oftast är mest aktuell attsöka ersättning ur är olycksfallsförsäkringen som finns i en traditionell djurförsäkring.1

<p dir="ltr">Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of synthetic chemicals known for their persistence in the environment and potential health risks. PFAS are linked to several adverse effects in human and wildlife health. The detection of PFAS in biosolids has raised concerns about their use in agricultural and land application practices. This is because some PFAS are known to enter the food system through plant uptake and some leach into groundwater. The purpose of this study was to examine the PFAS profile in soils and porewater with depth at an agricultural site with historical biosolids applications. The site selected has received biosolids at agronomic rates for corn for approximately four decades. This study utilized a total of six lysimeters, three “shallow” at 60 cm and three “deep” at 120 cm, to monitor PFAS leaching in soil. Porewater samples were collected within 1-3 days after rain events based on rainfall amount and response of the moisture sensor installed at the site. For each of five porewater sampling events, PFAS and supplemental water parameters like total organic carbon (TOC) and pH were measured. Soil cores, taken in one-foot increments before and after the 3-month study, were analyzed for PFAS, soil OC, moisture, and grain size. All samples were analyzed using high resolution mass spectrometry for 54 PFAS and in line with EPA 1633 method. Soil characteristics such as texture, moisture, and soil OC significantly influence PFAS transport and sorption capacity within the soil profile, impacting PFAS distribution across soil depths. PFAS in the soil profile decreased with increasing depth and directly correlated with soil OC. Long chain PFAS were strongly retained in the top 60 cm and minimally distributed to the porewater. Short-chain PFAS proportionally dominated porewater samples, with elevated concentrations observed in shallow porewater driven by increased saturation (perched water) from a low permeability clay layer. Unsaturated conditions enhance PFAS retardation through air-water interface partitioning in addition to soil particle sorption mechanisms. In this study, less than 0.1% of PFAS leach from the vadose zone of a biosolid impacted plot annually, underscoring the longevity of PFAS in the soil profile and importance of understanding PFAS transport dynamics for effective environmental management.</p>

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are man-made substances that hold unique properties. They are not only oil- and water repellants but also very resistant to degradation. Due to these properties, the applications are endless and PFASs can be found in a wide range of industrial applications and commercial products. The effluents of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have been pointed out as one of the major sources of PFASs in the environment. The main aim of this project was to evaluate the sources and the occurrence of PFASs in a wastewater network in a Swedish city and in the different treatment steps at the connected WWTP. Another objective was to use these data to calculate mass flows and to investigate the fate of PFASs within the WWTP. The city of Uppsala and the WWTP Kungsängsverket were selected as study objects. Both wastewater and sludge were sampled and analyzed. In the wastewater network, a total of 15 pumping stations (PSTs) were sampled for wastewater, and at the WWTP, a total of 10 wastewater and 10 sludge samples were taken. The samples consisted of grab samples (n = 24), time-integrated samples (100 mL every 20 min during 24 hours, n = 2) and flow proportional samples (24 hours, n = 9). The aqueous and sludge samples were prepared for analysis using solid-phase and solid liquid extraction, respectively, and then analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS). The PFAS concentrations and composition profiles varied greatly in the network. High concentrations of 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 FTSA) were generally found in the wastewater, which indicates increased usage of 6:2 FTSA in industrial processes and applications as replacement for perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and/or leaching from fire-training sites. A hot spot was detected (Sågargatan PST: ΣPFAS = 55,000 ng L-1 = 110,000 mg d-1) with elevated discharges of C3 – C8 perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs). The studied WWTP was ineffective in removing C4, C6, C8 perfluoroalkyl sulfonates (PFSAs), C3 – C8 PFCAs and 6:2 FTSA from wastewater. Longer chained C9 – C17 PFCAs tended to partition to sludge more effectively than shorter chained C3 – C8 PFCAs, where PFCAs with an even amount of perfluorated carbon atoms had a higher affinity for sludge than those with an odd amount. The PFAS concentrations and mass flows tended to increase across the second clarifier in both wastewater and sludge, probably due to precursor degradation. PFSAs and PFCAs tended to be at similar or lower concentrations in the effluent compared to the influent. This shows that these substances enter the WWTP from an upstream source and are not formed or added in the WWTP. The transformation of precursors is therefore not the most important source of PFASs in Kungsängsverket. PFASs in wastewater at a large scale municipal WWTP may origin to a large extent from both industrial applications and domestic sources, such as daily life products. The new knowledge generated within this project will help Uppsala Vatten to protect drinking water supplies and the receiving aquatic environment from PFAS contamination. / Per- och polyfluoroalkylerade substanser (PFAS) är konstgjorda ämnen som har unika egenskaper. De är inte bara fett- och vattenavvisande utan är även mycket resistenta mot nedbrytning. På grund av dessa egenskaper är applikationerna med PFAS oändliga, och de används i en lång rad industriella applikationer och kommersiella produkter. Renat vatten från avloppsreningsverk har pekats ut som en av de största källorna av PFAS i miljön. Syftet med det här projektet var att undersöka källorna och uppkomsten av PFAS i ett ledningsnät i en svensk stad och även före/efter de olika reningsstegen i det största reningsverket. Ett annat mål var att använda dessa data för att beräkna massflöden och att studera ödet för PFAS i reningsverket. Uppsala stad och reningsverket Kungsängsverket valdes som studieobjekt. Både avloppsvatten och slam provtogs och analyserades. I ledningsnätet provtogs totalt 15 pumpstationer (PST) med avseende på avloppsvatten och i reningsverket togs det totalt 10 avloppsvatten- och 10 slamprover. Proverna bestod av stickprover (n = 24), tidsintegrerade prover (100 mL var 20 min under 24 timmar, n = 2) och flödesproportionerliga prov (24 timmar, n = 9). Vatten- och slamproverna preparerades för analys med hjälp av fastfas- respektive fast-vätske-extraktion, och analyserades därefter med vätskekromatografi kopplat till tandem-mass-spektrometri (LC/MS/MS). PFAS koncentrationerna och sammansättningsprofilerna varierade mycket i ledningsnätet. Koncentrationerna av 6:2 fluorotelomersulfonsyra (6:2 FTSA) var generellt höga i avloppsvattnet, vilket tyder på en ökad användning av 6:2 FTSA i industriella processer och applikationer som ersättningssubstans för perfluorooktansulfonsyra (PFOS) och/eller urlakning från brandövningsplatser. En så kallad hot spot detekterades i ledningsnätet (Sågargatan PST: ΣPFAS = 55 000 ng L-1 = 110 000 mg d-1) med punktutsläpp av C3 – C8 perfluoroalkylerade karboxylsyror (PFCA). Det studerade reningsverket var inte effektivt för rening av C4, C6, C8 perfluoroalkyl-sulfonsyror (PFSAs), C3 – C8 PFCAs och 6:2 FTSA. PFAS av typen C9 – C17 PFCA (långa kolkedjor) tenderade att fördela sig till slamfasen mer än C3 – C8 PFCA (kortare kedjor), där PFCA med ett jämnt antal perfluorerade kolatomer hade större affinitet för slam än de med udda. PFAS koncentrationerna och massflödena tenderade att öka från första till andra sedimentations-tanken, både i avloppsvatten och i slam, troligtvis som en följd av degradering av prekursorer. PFSA och PFCA tenderade att ha likvärdiga eller lägre koncentrationer i ut- jämfört med inflöde. Detta tyder på att huvudkällorna för dessa substanser i avloppsvatten finns uppströms och uppkommer inte genom bildning eller tillsats i reningsverket. Nedbrytning av prekursorer är därför inte den viktigaste källan av PFAS i Kungsängsverket. Det visades tydligt att PFAS i ett kommunalt avloppsvatten kan ha sitt ursprung såväl i både industriella produkter och processer som produkter från hushåll, som t.ex. dagligvaruprodukter. Den nya kunskapen som genererats i detta projekt kommer att hjälpa Uppsala Vatten att skydda dricksvattentäkter och den mottagande akvatiska miljön för PFAS förorening.