PFAS are anthropogenic substances used in many different industrial operations and products because of their unique properties. Due to their negative impact on human health and environmental bioaccumulative characteristics different authorities have addressed the issue. In Sweden the limit is4 ng/L for four different PFAS in drinking water. Another risk to human health is elevated concentrations of toxic elements, causing Sweden to include them in the drinking water regulations withlimits such as 5 µg/L for arsenic, 25 µg/L for chromium and 5 µg/L for lead.This study is a continuation of an investigation for PFAS remediation in contaminated water by sorption to pine and spruce bark. The earlier study was a laboratory scale and implied that pine and spruce have some sorption capacity for long-chain PFAS. In this study pine and spruce bark were used as sorbent at an industrial site. The analysis was performed by weak-anion exchange extraction followed bysupercritical fluid chromatography coupled with a tandem mass spectrometer (SFC-MS/MS) and liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS) for instrumental analyses of target ultra-short-chain PFAS, short- and long chain PFAS and branched PFOS isomers. An elemental analysis was executed with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The obtained results indicated removal for certain long-chain PFAS, potential for sorption of a specific ultra-short-chain PFAS and the elemental analysis implied some reduction of the chromium concentrations.

The environmental toxin PFAS (per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances) is a heterogeneous synthetic industrial chemical group that has been used since the 1950s which, due to its attractive properties, has a wide range of applications in our society. PFAS are persistent and bioaccumulative, which means that the levels increase in the environment over time; At higher levels, the substances are toxic and show a negative effect on human health. PFAS spread through air and water; in particular, the PFAS group PFAA (perfluorinated alkyl acids) poses a threat to the safe drinking water supply due to its rapid mobility and long-distance transport in aquatic environments. The main objective of this study was to investigate the potential impact of PFAS contaminants on Gävle's groundwater source through a simplified risk assessment. By mapping risk activities (use of firefighting foam, industries, and landfills) that can cause the introduction of PFAS pollutants to the groundwater source, comparing limit values and making a current situation description, the aim was to assess whether the risks to the environment and human health are acceptable or not. The study was conducted with mixed methods containing both quantitative and qualitative parts to provide several perspectives regarding the potential impact of PFAS contaminants on Gävle's groundwater and drinking water supply. The results identified two industrial operations where soil contamination by PFAS was found. Furthermore, the comparison between the limit value for PFAS4 in drinking water (4 nanograms per liter) and the mean value of Sum PFAS4 within the areas of the study shows PFAS concentrations exceeding the Swedish limit value. The description of municipal measures regarding drinking water reflects Gästrike Vatten AB's PFAS purification pilots. The study's conclusions are that the use of firefighting foam containing PFAA probably caused the contamination situation. Gästrike Vatten AB's ongoing and completed purification pilots in the Valbo and Sätra waterworks lead to the installation of purification systems that will be able to reduce the levels of PFAS4 in the drinking water in Gävle municipality to acceptable levels. The overall conclusion based on the risk assessment is that it is currently not possible to assess whether the risks are acceptable or not as a result of the continued supply of PFAS and groundwater sensitivity. However, Gästrike Vatten AB has taken measures regarding drinking water and are in-depth source tracking. / Miljögiftet PFAS (per- och polyfluorerade alkylsubstanser) är en heterogen syntetisk industriell kemikaliegrupp som använts sedan 1950-talet vilka genom sina attraktiva egenskaper har ett brett användningsområde i vårt samhälle. PFAS är persistenta och bioackumulerande vilket gör att halterna ökar i miljön över tid; i högre halter är ämnena toxiska och påvisar en negativ effekt på människors hälsa. PFAS sprids genom luft och vatten; särskilt PFAS-gruppen PFAA (perfluorerade alkylsyror) utgör ett hot mot säker dricksvattenförsörjning genom sin snabba mobilitet och långväga transport i vattenmiljöer.   Målet med denna studie var att undersöka PFAS-föroreningars potentiella påverkan på Gävles grundvattentäkt genom en förenklad riskbedömning. Genom att kartlägga riskverksamheter (bruk av brandskum, industrier och deponier) som kan orsaka tillförseln av PFAS-förororeningar till grundvattentäkten, jämföra gränsvärden och göra en nulägesbeskrivning var syftet att slutligen bedöma om riskerna för miljö och människors hälsa är acceptabla eller inte. Studien genomfördes med mixad metod innehållandes både kvantitativa och kvalitativa delar för att ge flera perspektiv gällande PFAS-föroreningars potentiella påverkan på Gävles grund- och dricksvattentäkt. I resultatet identifierades två industriverksamheter där markföroreningar av PFAS påträffats. Vidare visar jämförelsen mellan gränsvärdet för PFAS4 i dricksvatten (4 nanogram per liter) och medelvärdet av Summa PFAS4 inom studiens områden påvisar PFAS-halter överstigande det nationella gränsvärdet. I genomgången av de lokala åtgärderna beskrivs Gästrike Vatten AB:s pågående och avslutade PFAS-reningspiloter. Studiens slutsatser är att bruket av brandskum innehållande PFAA troligen har orsakat föroreningssituationen. Gästrike Vatten AB:s pågående och avslutade reningspiloter i Valbo- och Sätra vattenverk föranleder installation av reningssystem vilka kommer kunna sänka halterna av PFAS4 i dricksvattnet i Gävle kommun till acceptabla nivåer. Den samlade konklusionen utifrån riskbedömningen är att det i nuläget inte går att bedöma om riskerna är acceptabla eller inte till följd av den fortsatta tillförseln av PFAS och grundvattnets känslighet. Gästrike Vatten AB har dock vidtagit åtgärder gällande dricksvattnet och fördjupad källspårning pågår.

Stormwater is a significant transport medium for pollutants to recipients located near cities. Substances commonly found in stormwater include nutrients, metals, organic substances and particles. A group of pollutants detected in stormwater are per- och polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). PFAS is a group of chemicals which have been proven to have harmful effects on health, such as endocrine disruptive effects. The most sensitive considered parameter today is effects on the immune system, but a few of these substaces are also classified as carcinogenic or potentially carcinogenic. The distribution of PFAS to the environment is significant from both new and historical uses and sources, which continue to contribute to the environment due to high persistence of PFAS. The most significant point sources of PFAS in stormwater are industrial processes and manufacturing of PFAS-containing products, firefighting foam and hydraulic oil. Atmospheric deposition, building materials and traffic also contribute but in a smaller scale.  This thesis is based on a case study of a Swedish stormwater system and is aimed to evaluate which concentrations that can be classified as elevated in the stormwater system. Another aim is to investigate various remedial measures against the elevated levels of PFAS in the stormwater system. This was accomplished by a literature study of remediation techniques for PFAS applicable to a case study of an investigated stormwater system. The case study was carried out in different parts to estimate the risks and possible measures. The parts were action levels, site-specific guideline values, sampling, requirements for actions or remediation, and possible remediations techniques. Action targets and site-specific guideline values were developed based on literature and results obtained using a conceptual model. The action target was stated as follow: Stormwater must not contribute to the distribution of per- och polyfluoroalkyl substances which in a long term can result in levels in surface water that pose a risk to human health. The site-specific guideline value of 4,4 ng/L PFOA-equivalents at the outlet of the storwater, was developed based on background levels and environmental quality standards from EU:s water directive for surface water.  Sampling and analysis of 22 different PFAS compounds was carried out at 10 different sampling locations in the actual stormwater system of the case study. The measured levels were compared to the site-specific guideline value, and an assessment of requirements for actions or remediation was carried out. The measured levels in the stormwater system were calculated, 5,76 ng/L PFOA-equivalents. Finally, an investigation was done of possible remedial actions and suitable remediations techniques. The stormwater system needed further investigations to make a legitimate decision about the need for stormwater treatment of PFAS. Investigations of potential point sources were suggested as adequate in order to apply the most resource efficient remedial action. Various remedial techniques were also considered for the stormwater system. The techniques were evaluated based on the criterias's; remedial capacity, water matrix, estimations of captial- and operating costs, energy requirements and availability on the market.

Detta arbete utfördes med syfte att undersöka läkemedelsrester, PFAS-ämnen, pH-värde och hårdhet i Stockholms dricksvatten samt undersöka reningsprocessen vid Norsborgs vattenverk. För att uppfylla syftet inleddes arbetet med en litteraturstudie där information om läkemedelsrester, PFAS-ämnen, pH, hårdhet och reningsprocessen vid Norsborgs vattenverk samt information om olika kromatografiska metoder insamlades. Inga resultat erhölls för PFAS-ämnen då databaser för masspektrometri saknades på Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan. På grund av COVID-19 blev arbetet mycket begränsat eftersom analyserna för läkemedelsrester inte kunde slutföras. Detta ledde till att egna resultat för läkemedelsrester uteblev. Det fanns däremot tidigare studier inom ämnet som kunde användas för att driva en diskussion. Enligt tidigare studier är halter av läkemedelsrester i Mälaren är alldeles för låga för att påverka människor, men påverkar djurlivet i Mälarens vatten. Dock ökar läkemedelshalterna i Mälaren, vilket kan leda till problem i framtiden. Resultat erhölls för pH och hårdhet, och dessa värden var mycket bra för dricksvatten. pH kan däremot komma att bli ett problem i framtiden då ökad övergödning leder till ökad säsongsvariation av pH-värdet i Mälaren. Detta medför att vattenverken blir viktiga för att säkerställa kvaliteten på Stockholms kommunala dricksvatten. Reningen av Stockholms dricksvatten sker i två vattenverk, Lovö och Norsborgs vattenverk. I den här rapporten undersöktes Norsborgs vattenverk. Mälarens vatten är mycket rent, men vattenverken säkerställer dricksvattnets höga kvalitet. Detta kan bli viktigare med ökade säsongsvariationer av pH, men även ökade läkemedelsrester. / This thesis was made with the goal to examine pharmaceuticals, PFAS-substances, pH and hardness of the drinking water in Stockholm as well as examine the purification process of Norsborg’s water treatment work. To fulfil the goal, the project started with a literature study where information about pharmaceuticals, PFAS-substances, pH, hardness and the purification process of Norsborg’s water treatment work were gathered. Information about chromatography methods were also collected. No results for PFAS-substances was collected as no databases for mass spectrometry was available at the Royal Institute of Technology. Because of COVID-19 the project was limited since the analyses for pharmaceuticals could not be completed. This led to no results for the concentration of pharmaceuticals. Previous studies on the subject could be used as material for discussion. According to previous studies, the concentration of pharmaceuticals in Mälaren are way too low to affect humans, but will have an effect on other creatures living in Mälaren. The concentration of pharmaceuticals in Mälaren are increasing, which will lead to future problems. Results for pH and hardness were collected, and the values of these were very good for drinking water. Though, pH can be a problem in the future as increasing eutrophication leads to increasing seasonal variety of pH. This means that the water treatment works become very important to make sure that the quality of the drinking water in Stockholm is good. The purification of Stockholm’s drinking water is being done in Stockholm’s two water treatment works of Lovö and Norsborg. In this report the water treatment work of Norsborg was investigated. The water of Mälaren is very clean, but the water treatment works ensure the high quality of Stockholm’s drinking water. This will be more important in the future with increasing seasonal variety of pH, and increasing concentration of pharmaceuticals in Mälaren.

<p>Waste-derived organic products are nutrient-rich materials often applied to agricultural land as a fertilizer to enhance agricultural production and soil quality. Commercially available biosolid-based products, which are sold and distributed in bags or bulk, are rapidly gaining popularity for urban and suburban use. Although biosolid-derived products have many benefits, they may contain trace organic contaminants such as per- and polyfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) and pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs), in varying levels, depending on waste source composition. These organic compounds have been used in a variety of consumer and industrial products and are known to accumulate in biosolids due to their recalcitrance in conventional wastewater treatment processes. Thus, the application of commercially available biosolids-based products on urban and suburban gardens may lead to transfer and accumulation of organic contaminants into food crops, raising food safety concerns. Most studies to date have focused on municipal biosolids application on agricultural lands with very few studies focused on commercial products available for home and urban gardens. For the latter, the evaluations of bioavailability and subsequent plant uptake of organic contaminants from biosolids have also often been conducted by adding organic contaminants to the growing media (e.g., soil or hydroponic) at a concentration that greatly exceed environmentally relevant concentrations. Moreover, there are currently no studies evaluating leaching and plant uptake potential of contaminants from commercially available (e.g., local stores) biosolids. The research described in this dissertation 1) assessed the occurrence of PFAAs and representative PPCPs in commercially available biosolid-based products and their porewater concentrations in saturated media as a measure of bioavailability and leachability; 2) investigated how heat-treatment, composting, blending and thermal hydrolysis processes on biosolids to convert them to commercial biosolid-based products affect PFAA concentrations in the production of commercial biosolid-based product; and 3) assessed the bioavailability and plant uptake of PFAAs and targeted PPCPs by kale and turnips grown in soil-less potting media amended with Milorganite (a commercially available biosolids-based fertilizer product) at the recommended rate and four times the recommended rate.</p><p>The biosolid-based products displayed varying levels of organic contaminants. Higher PFAA concentrations were detected in biosolid-based products compared to nonbiosolid-based products. The common treatment processes used in taking biosolids to commercially available products were ineffective in reducing PFAA levels in the products except for blending with other essentially PFAA-free materials, thus served as a simple dilution. Porewater concentrations of PFAAs and PPCPs as an indicator of leachability and bioavailability were higher for the less hydrophobic compounds (e.g., short-chain PFAAs and diphenhydramine and carbamazepine with lower octanol-water partition coefficient). Leachability alone did not explain the observed plant uptake potential of PFAAs and PPCPs. With similar leachability and molecular weight/size between diphenhydramine and carbamazepine, higher uptake was observed with a positively charged compound (diphenhydramine compared to a neutral compound (carbamazepine). However, not all positively charged compounds were taken up by the plant. Azithromycin, a positively charged compound, had lower uptake than other contaminants which may be due to its large molecular size compared to diphenhydramine. Higher concentrations of miconazole, triclosan, and triclocarban were found in the biosolids-fertilizer; however, these compounds had low leachabilities and limited uptake by plants. Also, for PPCPs, the application rates of biosolid-based products did not necessarily correlate with the higher uptake and translocation of contaminants to the above-ground portion of plants. </p><p>This study provides an evaluation of commercially available waste-derived organic products under condition comparable to home and urban garden setting. Although biosolids-based products can serve as alternatives to synthetic fertilizers, they contain higher levels of trace organic contaminants than nonbiosolid-organic products. Common biosolids treatment processes are ineffective for reducing the levels of trace organic contaminants in biosolids, particularly for PFAAs. Thus, it is critical to control the sources contributing to the higher level of these contaminants in biosolids-based products. Also, regulations (e.g., triclosan and triclocarban) and replacements (e.g., longer-chain PFAAs to short-chain PFAAs) of persistent trace organic chemicals have led to a reduction in their levels in biosolids-based products. Although longer chain PFAAs are more likely to bioaccumulate and persistent than the replacement short-chain alternatives, the current study has shown that the short-chain PFAAs are more readily taken up to edible parts of plants than longer-chain PFAAs even when applying at the recommended fertilizer rate. Thus, the current movement to replace longer chain PFAAs with short chains has the potential to result in higher total PFAA concentrations being bioavailable for plant uptake, thus increasing the risk of food contamination by PFAAs. </p>

<div> <p>In recent years, the presence of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in aquatic systems has led to research on their fate, effects and treatability. PFAS have been found in various environmental matrices including wastewater effluents, surface, ground, and drinking water. Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are the class of PFAS most commonly tested due to their ability to migrate rapidly through groundwater and include perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs) and perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs). Of the globally distributed and persistent PFAAs, PFSAs are the most resistant to biological and oxidative chemical attack. This doctoral study focused on a reductive treatment approach with zero valent metals/bimetals nanoparticles (NPs) synthesized onto a carbon material to reduce NP aggregation. Initial work focused on exploring reactivity of different combinations of nano (n) Ni, nFe⁰ and activated carbon (AC) at 22 ^oC to 60 ^oC for transforming perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) from which nNiFe⁰-AC at 60 ^oC led to transformation of both linear (L-) and branched (Br-) PFOS isomers. The remaining research focused on work with nNiFe⁰-AC at 60 ^oC in batch reactors including optimizing nNiFe⁰-AC preparation, quantifying PFOS transformation kinetics and evaluating the effects of PFAA chain length (C4, C6 and C8) and polar head group (PFSA versus PFCA) as well a groundwater matrix on transformation magnitude. Optimization of analytical methods to provide multiple lines of evidence of transformation including fluoride, sulfite and organic product generation was an ongoing throughout the research.</p> <p>nNiFe⁰-AC prepared with a 3-h synthesis stirring time led to the highest PFOS transformation of 51.1 ± 2.1% with generation of ~ 1 mole of sulfite (measured as sulfate) and 12 moles of fluoride. Several poly/per-fluorinated intermediates with single and double bonds were identified using quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (QToF-MS) in negative electrospray ionization (ESI-) mode with MS/MS fragmentation confirmation as well as one and later two desulfonated products with QToF negative atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI-). All organic transformation products were found in only particle extracts as well as most of the sulfite generated. PFOS transformation kinetics showed that generated fluoride concentrations increased for the first day whereas sulfate concentrations continued to increase during the 5-d reaction. The transformation products identified showed defluorination of single- and double-bond structures, formation of C8 to C4 PFCAs and paraffins from cleavage of the C-S bond.</p> <p>The length of the perfluoroalkyl chain affected the length of time to achieve peak removal, but overall magnitude of transformation when reactions appeared complete were similar for both PFSAs and PFCAs. Like PFOS, PFOA transformation maxed in 1 d whereas shorter chains required more time to reach their peak removal, which is hypothesized to be due to lower sorption of the shorter chain PFAAs to the reactive surfaces. Measured F mass balance was higher for PFOS and PFOA (>90% F) compared to shorter chain PFAAs (~50-70% F). The Perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS) and perfluorobutanesulfonate (PFBS) degradation products include single bond polyfluoroalkyl sulfonates and shorter-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylates. For example, PFHxS transformation resulted in perfluorohexane carboxylic acid (PFHxA) and perfluorobutane carboxylic acid (PFBA). PFCA transformation products included per- & polyfluoroalkyl carboxylates with single bonds and alcohols with single and double bonds. The effect of inorganic matrix on transformation with nNiFe⁰-AC at 60 ^oC was explored using a contaminated groundwater collected at a former fire-training area in Massachusetts. Transformation appeared ‘generally’ lower than in the single-solute clean water systems, which may have been due to the presence of PFAS precursors that degraded to PFAAs and competitive adsorption between anionic PFAAs and inorganic ions onto the NP surface.</p><p>The research presented here demonstrates that nNiFe⁰-AC at 60 ^oC can mineralize PFAAs even in a typical groundwater matrix. Additional lab and pilot scale studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms leading to transformation as well as why transformation reactions plateau prior to all the parent compounds being transformed. The latter may be due to a poisoning phenomenon that can occur in closed systems, which may not occur in a flowing system more characteristic of an environmental scenario, as well as surface area and reactive site constraints or particle passivation.</p></div>

The occurrence of chemical contaminants in the environment is one of the key issues the world isfacing today. Special effort has been put on the screening of endocrine disrupting compounds(EDCs), substances that have been shown to have adverse effects on the endocrine system. EDCs are mainly found in pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), but also other products covering almost all categories of our daily life. EDCs can be both organic, such as the persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and inorganic, e.g. heavy metals. Today, all kinds of EDCs are currently being investigated on a large scale. Two EDC sub-categories that have gained increased public attention during the last years are organic flame retardants (FRs) and per- and polyfluoroalkylated substances (PFASs). Both categories have shown to be bioaccumulating, persistent and toxic, which has led to banning of several substances in both categories. However, as both FRs and PFASs are considered to be emerging POPs, their fate and behaviour in the environment are still in great need of research. FRs and PFASs often end up in surface waters due to their disinclination of getting removed in waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) and their persistence. Thus, the objective of this project was to provide a snapshot of the current situation of FRs and PFASs in Swedish rivers, including both smaller streams and bigger rivers. Grab water samples were taken at 25 sites for FRs and 44 for PFASs in rivers all over Sweden. The results showed that sparsely populated areas such as the northern part of Sweden generally showed lower concentrations of PFASs in the water than the southern part did. The summarised concentrations of FRs ranged from 37 ng L-1 to 4.6 μg L-1, and from 0.59 ng L-1 to 59 ng L-1 for the detected PFASs, which was in good comparison to previous studies carried out on surface water in Europe. The percentile composition, the so-called fingerprint, showed significant differences between the southern part and the northern part for both FRs and PFASs, but also great similarities between some of the rivers with the highest measured PFASs concentrations. The highest loads of both FRs and PFASs were detected in Delångersån, which is one of the smaller rivers screened and likely to be affected by a nearby industrial point source. The European environmental quality standard of 0.65 ng L-1 of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) was exceeded in 12 of all 44 sampled rivers.

Perfluoroalkylated substances (PFASs) are a group of synthetic compounds that have gained growing attention due to their environmental persistence, toxicity and their potential to bioaccumulate. Even though PFASs are not occurring naturally in our environment, they are globally distributed and can be found ubiquitously in air, water, soil, wildlife as well as in humans. PFASs have primarily been used, due to their unique properties of being both hydrophilic and hydrophobic, as surfactants in numerous products such as firefighting foams, paint, leather and textile coating. The occurrence of PFASs in drinking water as well as in wastewater makes it important to develop effective techniques to remove these compounds from drinking water sources and wastewater. To be able to effectively remove PFASs from drinking water and wastewater it is important to understand which treatment process is most efficient and how the removal efficiency is affected by the physicochemical properties of PFASs and characteristics of water. In this study, the removal efficiency of PFASs was investigated using six different water types with varying dissolved organic carbon (DOC) character. Four different treatment techniques were evaluated including anion exchange using MIEX® resins, coagulation with iron (III) chloride (FeCl3), adsorption using powdered activated carbon (PAC) and nanofiltration (NF) membrane. The batch experiments were performed in laboratory-scale for 14 individual PFASs including C3-11, C13 perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), C4, C6, C8 perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs) and perfluorooctane sulfonamide (FOSA). The results showed that the removal efficiency of PFASs was dependent on both perfluorocarbon chain length as well as functional group, with an increase in removal efficiency with increased perfluorocarbon chain length. Short-chained PFASs (C!6) were removed in less extent than the long chained PFASs for all treatment techniques. Amongst the four treatment techniques investigated, NF membrane exhibited the best removal efficiency for both short- and long chained PFASs (on average, 51%). Lower removal efficiencies for PFASs were observed for MIEX (33%) &lt; FeCl3 (16%) &lt; PAC (14%). However, all tested treatment techniques used in this study exhibited generally low removal efficiency (&lt; 78%), in particular for the short-chained PFASs (C!6, &lt; 41%) Results using three different doses of PAC (i.e. 20, 50, 100 mg L-1) showed an increase in removal (i.e. 2.2-41%, 8.0-78% and 12-92% respectively) with increasing dose. No significant trends were found between PFAS removal and DOC removal for any of the treatments (p&lt;0.05, student t-test). However, the removal efficiency was different of the six different water types, which indicates that the DOC characteristics (i.e. Freshness, humification index, pH and absorbance) have an influence on the removal efficiency of PFASs in water. / Perfluoroalkylerade ämnen (PFASer) är en grupp syntetiska ämnen som har fått allt större uppmärksamhet den senaste tiden då de har visat sig vara persistenta, toxiska och bioackumulerande. Även om PFASer inte förekommer naturligt i vår miljö är de globalt fördelade och kan återfinnas i luft, vatten, mark, djur och hos människor. PFASer har främst använts, på grund av sina unika egenskaper att vara både hydrofila och hydrofoba, som tensider i många produkter såsom brandsläckningsskum, färg, läder och textil. Förekomsten av PFASer i dricksvattentäkter och i många reningsverk gör det viktigt att utveckla effektiva metoder för att ta bort dessa föreningar i vattenreningsverk. För att effektivt kunna avlägsna PFASer från dricks- och avloppsvatten är det viktigt att ha kunskap om vilken behandlingsmetod som är effektivast och hur reningseffektiviteten påverkas av ämnenas fysikalisk-kemiska egenskaper och vattnets karaktär.   Syftet med denna studie var att undersökta reningseffektiviteten för PFASer i sex olika vatten innehållande olika typer av löst organiskt kol (DOC). Detta undersöktes för fyra olika behandlingsteknikert; jonbyte med MIEX®, koagulering med järnklorid (FeCl3), adsorption med hjälp av pulveriserat aktivt kol (PAC) och nanofiltrering. Försöken gjordes små skaligt i laboratorie och 14 olika PFASer undersöktes; C3-11,13  perfluoralkyl karboxylsyror (PFCAer), C4, C6, C8, perfluoralkyl sulfonsyror (PFSAer) och perfluoroktan sulfonamid (FOSA). Resultaten visar att reningseffektiviteten för PFASer var beroende av både den perfluorerade kolkedjans längd och funktionell grupp, med en ökning av reningseffektivitet med längre perfluorerad kolkedja. PFASer med kort perfluorerad kolkedja (C≤6) renades i mindre utsträckning än PFASer med lång perfluorerad kolkedjade; detta gällde för alla behandlingstekniker. Bland de fyra behandlingstekniker som undersöktes uppvisade nanofiltreringen den bästa reningseffektiviteten för PFASer med både korta och långa kolkedjor (i genomsnitt, 51%.). Lägre reningseffektivitet för PFASer observerades för MIEX®(33%), &lt; FeCl3(16%) &lt; PAC (14%). Totalt sett erhölls en relativt låg reningseffektivitet (&lt;78%) för samtliga reningstekniker, speciellt för de kortkedjade PFASer (C£6, &lt; 41%). Resultat från försök med tre olika doser PAC (e.g. 20, 50, 100 mg L-1) visade på en ökad reningseffektivitet (2,2-41%, 8,0-78% och 12-92%) med ökad dos PAC. Inga signifikanta trender kunde urskiljas vad gäller reningseffektivitet av PFASer och rening av DOC (p&lt;0.05, student t-test), detta gällde för samtliga behandlingstekniker. Det fanns dock tydliga skillnader i reningseffektivitet mellan de sex olika vattentyperna vilket indikerar på att DOC egenskaperna (Freshnessindex, humifieringsindex, pH, absorbans) har en påverkan på reningseffektiviteten för PFASer i vatten.

Landfills are potential sources for PFASs and treatment techniques for landfill leachate are urgently needed. Foam fractionation is an aeration technique which utilizes the tendency of PFASs to escape the liquid phase and build foam. The foam is harvested and with it the contamination. Landfill leachate from Hovgården, Uppsala Sweden contained PFASs of higher concentration than desired and investigations into whether foam fractionation could reduce PFASs amounts were initiated. Landfill leachate containing sum PFASs of 5500 ng/L on average were aerated in two different aeration foam collection pilot set-ups for the research. The pilot set-ups were divided into two models: a batch pilot and a continuous pilot. The batch pilot was run for 60 minutes testing parameters such as column volume, air flow rate, dilution and using additives as NaCl, FeCl3 and dish soap. The continuous pilot used contact times of 5, 10 and 20 minutes with constant air flow rate and column volume and no additives. All batch experiments showed reduced concentrations of PFASs, from 62 up to 91%, with an average sum PFASs removal efficiency of 77%. Air flow rates of 4 and 6 L/min were more effective than 2 L/min to reduce the amount of PFASs. Smaller volumes got higher removal efficiency. The dilution experiments showed mixed and somewhat contradictory results, where the nondiluted experiment had removal efficiency of sum PFASs of average 77% while the 50% diluted had an average sum PFASs removal efficiency of 84%. The experiment with the greatest dilution (75%) had the lowest average sum PFASs removal efficiency as suspected, at 68%. Regarding additives, the experiments with added 0.155 and 0.313% NaCl in the leachate were most effective at removing PFASs. The dish soap and FeCl3 additives also contributed to higher PFASs reduction. The experiment with the addition of dish soap had an average sum PFASs removal efficiency of 88% compared to 77% without additives, and the highest concentration of FeCl3 (0,09% of the leachate) had an average sum PFASs removal efficiency of 85%. All continuous experiments showed reduced reduced PFASs concentrations with sum PFASs removal efficiencies ranging from 72 up to 94%, with an average of 86%. The majority of the PFASs were reduced within the first time steps for all experiments, but for the last amount to be removed the contact time needed to be longer. The column contact time of 20 min had the highest average sum PFASs removal efficiency. The conclusion is that PFASs are reduced during the treatment in the pilots and that the reduction is dependent on the chain length and functional groups of the substances, and increased with additives and increased air flow rate. The volume treated and the concentration of raw water also influenced the removal efficiency.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic compounds that have beenaround since 1940. They can be used in a variety of products such as fire-fighting foam, food packaging and cosmetic products. Many PFAS have potential toxic effects on both humans and animals which poses a problem due to their wide distribution and persistency. Another problem concerns the remediation of PFAS, where the substances ends up circulating between the different disposal types (landfills, wastewater treatment and incineration). Active methods are therefore needed to remove or retain the contaminants. Some examples of these remediation technologies can be biomaterials, organoclays and more advanced methods such as activated carbon and ion exchange. The more advanced being suited for remediation of drinking water. In this study, the sorption efficiency of two pine bark fractions has been studied and also compared to the efficiency of activated carbon. The evaluation was done for both target analysis (PFAS-11) and non-specific analysis of extractable organofluorine (EOF) compounds in contaminated water from a hazardous waste management facility. The two pine bark fractions indicated similar sorption efficiencies, for both the PFAS-11 and the EOF compounds. The sorption efficiency ranged from 10% up to 75% for perfluorinated sulfonic acids (PFSA) and from below zero up to 40% for perfluorinated carboxylic acids (PFCA). A general pattern can be seen, the sorption efficiency increases with increasing length of the PFAS chain. The activated carbon had a higher sorption efficiency, where the majority of PFAS had an average sorption of 100%. In comparison, the PFAS-11 and total EOF analysis displayed high concentrations of unidentified EOF compounds. These compounds indicated a negative sorption, which might imply that non-targeted PFAS or other fluorinated organic compounds desorb from the bark. Therefore, the pine bark might be suitable as a rough remediation of long-chain PFAS (≥8C), but further studies on the sorption of unidentified fluorinated organic compounds are of interest.