Heat pumps cause noise, and in urban areas this can lead to complaints from the neighbors. Disturbing noise can affect human health adversely by causing sleep disturbances and difficulties to concentrate. Miljöbalken states that the one who installs a heat pump on his or her land is responsible for the noise that it generates. Naturvårdsverket has issued benchmarks that will serve as guidelines for noise measurements, when a suspicion of risks for human health is. Municipalities may also adopt limits in local regulations. Noise measurements are often done on the property line but a judgment of a precedent case from 2012 concludes that the measurements should be done at the facade and patio.  A survey was mailed to 221 companies that installed heat pumps. The responses showed a divided opinion on the question of how frequently the companies felt that the problems of noise complaints occurred. Most companies often discussed noise reduction measures with their customers in connection to the installation of the heat pump. However, it was far from all, though many, who used the existing regulations and guidelines in their counseling with the customers. Few companies used the benchmarks from Naturvårdsverket. The indistinct way to apply Naturvårdsverkets benchmarks that is shown in the summed cases in this report can make it difficult for the companies to use these in consultation with their customers.

The purpose of this study was to improve the knowledge about stormwater and water coolant at an industry, and in this case, Volvo GTO Umeå. It investigates which benchmark that should be used, Volvo GTO Umea’s pollutant load over a year and how the industry should sample the outgoing stormwater and water coolant. Article researches and interviews with the municipality and operations was the method for the sampling plan. Article researches were also used to find suitable benchmarks. To calculate the pollutant load, data were gathered from books, Internet and verbal sources. The conclusion is that it is hard to establish a flow proportional sampling plan for Volvo GTO Umeå when only a few companies uses the method and when it does not exist any national guidelines. It takes a lot of time to calculate a stormwater pollutant load on the recipient if the area has more than one sampling stormwater drain that has an outflow to the recipient. If the runoff coefficient is the same for all the sampling storm drains and standard concentrations is used as pollutant data, the pollutant load can be misleading for each sampling storm drains. It is important for a company to have benchmarks to compare their sampling data with. The benchmarks should consider the recipients sensitivity, to prevent impact on it.

The purpose of this degree project is to investigate noise problems for residential areas close to roads with very intense traffic. The area Lilla Essingen in Stockholm has been investigated and most focus is on noise measurements outdoors and different measures for noise reduction in the area. Sound measurements are the basis for this work, but calculations have been made to obtain the 24-hour equivalent sound level and maximum sound level for the different measurement points. Interviews are also an important part of this work, where the sales market for apartments located closest to the road is discussed with various brokers from different companies in the area. Furthermore, the harmful health effects that are obtained due to high noise levels, various measures for reducing noise impact and the different measured values ​​at different times during the day are discussed. The own measured and recalculated 24-hour equivalent noise levels from Lilla Essingen are compared with guideline values from both WHO and Stockholm City in order to better understand the importance of the actual noise within this residential area. Sleep disorders, reduced concentration, stress and hearing damage are the most common effects caused by noise and research has shown that noise also has a connection with cardiovascular diseases. Children are most affected by noise; it can affect their learning development and lead to less concentration compared to the other children who are not exposed to equally high sound levels. The own measurement values ​​have shown that sound levels differ during different times of the day and with different distances from the road. The sound is at its highest in the morning where traffic flow is high, but according to the measurements it has shown that the sound levels are always high next to the road even during the evening / night.   Keywords: Noise, noise impact, motorway, guide values, equivalent sound level, maximum sound level, noise reduction, traffic, quiet side / inte

Vid miljöövervakning av konstruktionsprojekt såsom byggnation av väg och järnväg är det vanligt att uppsatta riktvärden för grumlighet överskrids. I en genomgång av årsrapporter från infrastrukturprojektet BanaVäg i Väst visade det sig att riktvärden för grumlighet ofta sätts upp utan noggrann kartläggning av vattendragens naturliga grumlighetsnivåer. Detta arbetssätt beror förmodligen på den oklara lagstiftningen gällande riktvärden på grumlighet och på bristfälliga anvisningar för hur referensprovtagning av grumlighet bör utformas. För att komma åt problematiken med opålitliga riktvärden borde riktvärden därför anpassas till enskilda vattendrag. I detta examensarbete gjordes ett försök att ta fram en metod för att kunna sätta vattendragsanpassade riktvärden. En dynamisk modell utvecklades för att ta fram grumlighet utifrån jordbruksareal, andel lera i avrinningsområdet samt vattenflöde. Modellen gav bäst, men trots allt inte tillfredställande, resultat för vattendrag med avrinningsområden mindre än 100 km2. För vattendrag som hade ett större avrinningsområde blev modellresultaten sämre, förmodligen på grund av en komplex samverkan mellan olika drivvariabler, där vissa inte ens togs hänsyn till i modellen. För att komma vidare med vattendragsanpassade riktvärden i Sverige föreslås fortsättningsvis en omfattande nationell satsning framförallt för större värdefulla vattendrag. Denna satsning bör innefatta anpassning av mer avancerade modeller för grumlighet till svenska förhållanden. Sammanfattningsvis visar studien tydligt att det finns ett stort behov av att förbättra metoderna för att kontrollera grumlighet samt att ta fram riktvärden anpassade utifrån naturliga grumlighetsnivåer i de olika vattendragen. / It has been noticed that construction activities close to watercourses often result in turbidity values that exceed guideline values. A detailed analysis of annual reports from the Swedish infrastructure project “BanaVäg i Väst” has shown that recommended values of turbidity often are determined without consideration of natural variations in turbidity. The performance probably depends on the lack of appropriate legislation on acceptable turbidity values and on how turbidity should be monitored during construction activities. The objective of this thesis was therefore to develop a method to determine background values for turbidity as a basis for setting water system adapted reference values. In the thesis a model for turbidity was developed with agricultural area, clay content within the watershed and discharge as input variables. With the dynamic model variations in turbidity could best be explained in watercourses of watersheds less than 100 km2, but even for these watercourses the model performance remained poor. For watercourses draining larger watersheds the model performance became even poorer, most probably due to complex interactions of a variety of driving variables, of which some were not included as input variables. A recommendation is therefore a national initiative where more advanced models can be used, at least for large watercourses that are highly vulnerable, after adaption to Swedish conditions. This study clearly shows that there is an urgent need in Sweden to improve methods to monitor turbidity as well as to improve guideline values by adjusting them according to background turbidity levels.

Regnvatten, smältvatten och spolvatten som rinner av från hårdgjorda ytor kallas dagvatten. Dagvatten är ofta förorenat av tungmetaller eller svårnedbrytbara organiska ämnen, som kan göra stor skada om vattnet inte renas innan det når recipienten. I dagsläget finns det inga nationellt fastslagna riktvärden för föroreningshalter i dagvatten. Dagvattengruppen på Vattenfall AB Värme Uppsala har tillsammans med miljökontoret i Uppsala tagit fram riktvärden för föroreningshalter från kvarteret Brännugnen, som området som studerats i detta examensarbete kallas. Vattenfall har idag problem med att klara dessa riktvärden för bland annat metaller i en del av kvarterets dagvattenbrunnar. För att reducera utsläppet av föroreningar till dagvattennätet från kvarteret Brännugnen har därför denna dagvattenutredning genomförts. Genom platsundersökningar och provtagning på dagvattnet i sex punkter har källor till föroreningar identifierats. Förslag på åtgärder har tagits fram genom litteraturstudier, platsundersökningar och samtal och diskussioner med erfaren personal. Studien har också resulterat i förslag på en förbättrad provtagningsstrategi som ger en mer korrekt bild av utsläppta mängder föroreningar per år. Målsättningen var att den nya provtagningsstrategin skulle vara mer kostnadseffektiv vilket uppnåddes. I dagvattenstudien undersöktes också om rening sker i det underjordiska magasin som dagvattnet från halva kvarteret Brännugnen leds till. Resultatet visade att ingen rening sker i magasinet, då uppehållstiden är för kort för att partiklar ska hinna sedimentera. Förutom vatten från regn- och snösmältning kommer även kondensat och processvatten till dagvattennätet från kvarteret Brännugnen. Ett av målen i utredningen var att undersöka hur mycket kondensatet bidrar till den utsläppta mängden metaller. Provtagning av kondensat och dagvatten visade tillsammans med flödesberäkningar att kondensatet har en stor påverkan på hur stor mängd förorening som släpps ut per år. Riktvärden studerades också i denna dagvattenutredning, slutsatsen är att de riktvärden som Vattenfall förhåller sig till i dag är låga. Både schablonhalterna för värmeverk och vägdagvatten samt analysresultat av dagvatten från vägen utanför området överskrider Vattenfalls riktvärden för dagvatten. Slutligen skulle dagvattenstudien resultera i förslag på framtida åtgärder för rening av dagvattnet från kvarteret Brännugnen i form av tekniska lösningar. Avsättningsmagasin under mark och filteranläggning är två lösningar som är lämpliga för rening av dagvattnet med hänsyn till föroreningar och flöden. Kostnaden beror mycket på vilket flöde som blir dimensionerande. / Stormwater is rain and snow melt that runs off from hard surfaces. Stormwater is often polluted with heavy metals and organic pollutants, which can cause great damage if the water is not treated before it reaches the recipient. There are no national guidelines for threshold values of pollutants in stormwater. The stormwater group at Vattenfall AB Heat Uppsala and the environmental department at Uppsala municipality have together established threshold values for pollutants in the stormwater from the area Brännugnen, which is the name of the investigated area. Vattenfall has difficulties to keep the concentration of pollutants in the stormwater below the threshold values. To reduce the content of contaminants in the stormwater from the area Brännugnen this study was therefore carried out. Through site investigations and sampling of stormwater in six measuring points, sources of the contaminants were identified. Through literature studies, site investigations and discussions with experienced personnel, propositions of actions to avoid contamination of the stormwater have been developed. The stormwater study has also led to suggestion of an improved sampling strategy which better represents the amount of contaminants in the stormwater and is more cost-effective. The study included an investigation with the purpose to find out if the magazine that the stormwater from half of the area runs to have the capacity to reduce the contaminants. The results showed no reduction of contaminants. The reason is that the residence time is too short for the particles to have time to settle. In the study the contribution from condensate to the total amount of emitted metals in the stormwater was investigated. The condensate passes a treatment plant for purification before being discharged to the stormwater pipes. The result shows that the condensate has a large impact on the amount of emitted metals per year. Threshold values and standard values for stormwater was also studied, the conclusion is that the threshold values for the stormwater from the area Brännugnen are low. Both standard values for stormwater from thermal power stations and roads are higher than the threshold values. The results from the analyses of stormwater from the road outside the area Brännugnen also show higher concentrations of metals than the threshold values. Finally the stormwater study resulted in suggestions of technical solutions for future treatment of the stormwater from the area Brännugnen. An underground sedimentation magazine and a filter system are two treatment processes that can be used for removal of pollutants in the stormwater from the area Brännugnen.

I Sverige finns cirka 80 000 identifierade förorenade områden som i vissa fall behöver efterbehandling för att hantera föroreningssituationen. Naturvårdsverket publicerade 2009 ett reviderat vägledningsmaterial för riskbedömningar av förorenade områden tillsammans med en beräkningsmodell för att ta fram riktvärden. Riktvärdesmodellen är deterministisk och genererar enskilda riktvärden för ämnen under givna förutsättningar. Modellen tar inte explicit hänsyn till osäkerhet och variabilitet utan hanterar istället det implicit med säkerhets­faktorer och genom att användaren alltid utgår från ett rimligt värsta scenario vid val av parametervärden. En metod för att hantera osäkerhet och variabilitet i riskbedömningar är att göra en så kallad probabilistisk riskbedömning med Monte Carlo-simuleringar. Fördelen med detta är att ingångsparametrar kan definieras med sannolikhetsfördelningar och på så vis hantera inverkan av osäkerhet och variabilitet. I examensarbetet genomfördes en probabilistisk riskbedömning genom en vidare egen implementering av Naturvårdsverkets metodik varefter probabilistiska riktvärden beräknades för ett antal ämnen. Modellen tillämpades med två parameter­uppsättningar vars värden hade förankrats i litteraturen respektive Naturvårdsverkets metodik. Uppsättningarna genererade kumulativa fördelningsfunktioner av riktvärden som överensstämde olika mycket med de deterministiska riktvärden som Naturvårdsverket definierat. Generellt överensstämde deterministiska riktvärden för markanvändningsscenariot känslig mark­användning (KM) mer med den probabilistiska riskbedömningen än för scenariot mindre känslig markanvändning (MKM). Enligt resultatet i examensarbetet skulle dioxin och PCB-7 behöva en sänkning av riktvärden för att fullständigt skydda människor och miljö för MKM. En fallstudie över ett uppdrag som Geosigma AB utfört under hösten 2013 genomfördes också. Det var generellt en överensstämmelse mellan de platsspecifika riktvärden (PRV) som beräknats i undersökningsrapporten och den probabilistiska risk­bedömningen. Undantaget var ämnet koppar som enligt studien skulle behöva halverade riktvärden för att skydda människor och miljö. I den probabilistiska riskbedömningen kvantifierades hur olika skyddsobjekt respektive exponeringsvägar blev styrande för olika ämnens riktvärden mellan simuleringar. För några ämnen skedde avvikelser jämfört med de deterministiska motsvarigheterna i mellan 70-90 % av fallen. Exponeringsvägarnas bidrag till det ojusterade hälsoriskbaserade riktvärdet kvantifierades också i en probabilistisk hälsoriskbaserad riskbedömning. Riktvärden med likvärdiga numeriska värden erhölls för riktvärden med skild sammansättning. Detta motiverade att riktvärdenas sammansättning och styrande exponeringsvägar alltid bör kvantifieras vid en probabilistisk riskbedömning. / In Sweden, approximately 80,000 contaminated areas have been identified. Some of these areas are in need of remediation to cope with the effects that the contaminants have on both humans and the environment. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has published a methodology on how to perform risk assessments for contaminated soils together with a complex model for calculating soil guideline values. The guideline value model is deterministic and calculates single guideline values for contaminants. The model does not account explicitly for uncertainty and variability in parameters but rather handles it implicitly by using safety-factors and reasonable worst-case assumptions for different parameters. One method to account explicitly for uncertainty and variability in a risk assessment is to perform a probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) through Monte Carlo-simulations. A benefit with this is that the parameters can be defined with probability density functions (PDFs) that account for the uncertainty and variability of the parameters. In this Master's Thesis a PRA was conducted and followed by calculations of probabilistic guideline values for selected contaminants. The model was run for two sets of PDFs for the parameters: one was collected from extensive research in published articles and another one included the deterministic values set by the Swedish EPA for all parameters. The sets generated cumulative probability distributions (CPDs) of guideline values that, depending on the contaminant, corresponded in different levels to the deterministic guideline values that the Swedish EPA had calculated. In general, there was a stronger correlation between the deterministic guideline values and the CPDs for the sensitive land-use scenario compared to the less sensitive one. For contaminants, such as dioxin and PCB-7, a lowering of the guideline values would be required to fully protect humans and the environment based on the results in this thesis. Based on a recent soil investigation that Geosigma AB has performed, a case study was also conducted. In general there was a correlation between the deterministic site specific guideline values and the CPDs in the case study. In addition to this, a health oriented risk assessment was performed in the thesis where unexpected exposure pathways were found to be governing for the guideline values. For some contaminants the exposure pathway governing the guideline values in the PRA differed from the deterministic ones in 70-90 % of the simulations. Also, the contributing part of the exposure pathways to the unadjusted health guideline values differed from the deterministic ones. This indicated the need of always quantifying the composition of guideline values in probabilistic risk assessments.

The dispersion of contaminants deriving from landfills poses a risk to the surrounding environment and human health. Old landfills are treated with extra precaution, due to their poorer construction, less stringent operation and lack information regarding the waste content. Vetlanda municipality has identified 48 old landfills. One of them is Rösaberg inerta massor. It is one of the largest landfills in the region and is located close to numerous sensitive environmental receptors (such as the river Emån). During a phase 1 investigation (MIFO 1) in 2017, the landfill was designated the highest risk classification, class 1, and is considered a very high risk to environment and human health. No sampling was conducted during this time, but the level of contaminants was assumed to be very high.   The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of contaminants by determining the pollution levels in soil and groundwater in the landfill. Samples was obtained by completing a site investigation, involving trial pits examination and installing of monitoring wells. National as well as site-specific guideline values were used to determine the effects of the contaminant levels of the site. In the software Groundwater Modeling system (GMS) was used to study if the contaminant plumes reach the river Emån. A 50-year scenario was set up in GMS to investigate likely concentrations in the future. Finally, a new risk assessment of the site was done, based on the obtained results.   The results indicated that the landfill does not pose such a large environmental risk that initially was expected in the phase 1 investigation. The level of contaminants was higher in the groundwater than in the soil. High concentrations of PAH-Hs and 2,6-dichlorobenzamide were found in two of the groundwater samples. However, the risk assessment using the information obtained from the study indicated a lower risk than what was estimated in the MIFO 1 assessment 2017. In this study, the risk of the landfills current properties was evaluated to a risk 2. The 50-year scenario indicated that contaminants in the uppermost groundwater layer will have dispersed in a higher rate than the contaminants in the lower layer. The risk was estimated to a risk 3 in 50 years. It should be noted that no samples was conducted in river Emån which needs to be done before ruling out the necessity for remediating the groundwater. No remediation action for the soil was assessed to be necessary. / Spridning av föroreningar som härrör från deponier riskerar att påverka den omgivande miljön och människors hälsa negativt. Framför allt gamla, nedlagda deponier bör behandlas med extra försiktighet då de ofta ackompanjeras av otillräckliga sluttäckningskonstruktioner och bristande kunskap om deponins innehåll och utbredning.  Det finns i nuläget 48 kända nedlagda deponier i Vetlanda kommun, där en av dem är Rösaberg inerta massor. Den är bland de största deponierna i området och ligger nära ett flertal skyddsvärda objekt i området, såsom Emån. Under en MIFO 1-undersökning som utfördes 2017, ansågs deponin uppnå den högsta riskklassningen (riskklass 1) som innebär att området betraktas som en mycket hög risk för människors hälsa och omkringliggande natur. Inga prover genomfördes under denna undersökning, men föroreningsnivån antogs vara hög då liknande deponier i närheten uppvisat höga föroreningshalter.   Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka förekomsten av föroreningar och dess halter i området för att kunna dra slutsatser om deponins effekter på närliggande miljö och människor. Data för föroreningsförekomst och halter i mark och grundvatten erhölls genom att genomföra en platsundersökning där provgropar grävdes samt grundvattenrör installerades. För att kunna uppskatta effekterna som föroreningsnivåerna skulle ha på platsen togs generella såväl som platsspecifika riktvärden fram och jämfördes med de uppmätta halterna. För att kunna fastställa vilken risk som deponin utgör för Emån studerades föroreningsplymernas flödesmönster i grundvattnet i datorprogramvaran GMS. Spridningsgraden och den sannolika föroreningshalten i framtiden undersöktes genom att inrätta ett 50-årigt scenario i GMS. Slutligen gjordes en ny riskbedömning av området baserat på de erhållna resultaten.   Resultaten visade att deponin inte innehåller de höga föroreningshalter som initialt befarades. Generellt visade sig föroreningsnivåerna vara högre i grundvattnet än i marken. En riskbedömning genomfördes med hjälp av resultaten erhållen från studien och gav indikationer på en lägre risk än den ursprungliga klassningen. Klassningen resulterade i en riskklass 2 med strikt bedömning då några föroreningar stack ut från den generellt annars låga föroreningshalten, såsom PAH-H:er samt pesticiden 2,6-diklorbensamid i grundvatten. Scenariot för föroreningssituationen i ett 50-årsperspektiv visade att föroreningar från det övre grundvattenlagret sprids och minskar mer i halt än det undre skiktet. Riskklassningen för detta scenariot uppskattades till en riskklass 3. Det bedömdes att en åtgärd inte är nödvändig för mark på grund av dess låga föroreningshalt. För grundvatten rekommenderas vidare undersökningar på Emåns påverkan av föroreningar från deponin innan en avskrivning av åtgärder kan göras.

<p>Risk assessment is made to determine risks with contaminated areas and to determine which treatment the area requires. In Sweden, risk assessment is divided into three levels: risk analysis, facilitated risk assessment and detailed risk assessment. In detailed risk assessment site-specific guideline values are developed to compare with values of contaminants that are measured in the area.</p><p>Site-specific guideline values vary with geological and hydrogeological parameters. The purpose of this report is to examine which of these parameters that affect the guideline values. The examination was done using a calculating program for consideration from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency from the year of 1997. The study shows that some of the geological and hydrogeological parameters affect the site-specific guideline values for metals in different ways and others do not.  </p><p>Using the program from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency is a simple way to calculate site-specific guideline values. It’s important to make sure that relevant values are chosen to get correct results. The calculating program is still not definitive so it’s important to be careful when using it.</p><p>Another purpose of the report is to compare how guideline values have developed from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency’s model for calculating guideline values from the year of 1997 with their new report whit the same purpose from the year of 2007. Guideline values for all metals that have been considered are lower in the new model from the year of 2007 compared to the model from the year of 1997.</p>

Risk assessment is made to determine risks with contaminated areas and to determine which treatment the area requires. In Sweden, risk assessment is divided into three levels: risk analysis, facilitated risk assessment and detailed risk assessment. In detailed risk assessment site-specific guideline values are developed to compare with values of contaminants that are measured in the area. Site-specific guideline values vary with geological and hydrogeological parameters. The purpose of this report is to examine which of these parameters that affect the guideline values. The examination was done using a calculating program for consideration from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency from the year of 1997. The study shows that some of the geological and hydrogeological parameters affect the site-specific guideline values for metals in different ways and others do not.   Using the program from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency is a simple way to calculate site-specific guideline values. It’s important to make sure that relevant values are chosen to get correct results. The calculating program is still not definitive so it’s important to be careful when using it. Another purpose of the report is to compare how guideline values have developed from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency’s model for calculating guideline values from the year of 1997 with their new report whit the same purpose from the year of 2007. Guideline values for all metals that have been considered are lower in the new model from the year of 2007 compared to the model from the year of 1997.

Stormwater is a significant transport medium for pollutants to recipients located near cities. Substances commonly found in stormwater include nutrients, metals, organic substances and particles. A group of pollutants detected in stormwater are per- och polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). PFAS is a group of chemicals which have been proven to have harmful effects on health, such as endocrine disruptive effects. The most sensitive considered parameter today is effects on the immune system, but a few of these substaces are also classified as carcinogenic or potentially carcinogenic. The distribution of PFAS to the environment is significant from both new and historical uses and sources, which continue to contribute to the environment due to high persistence of PFAS. The most significant point sources of PFAS in stormwater are industrial processes and manufacturing of PFAS-containing products, firefighting foam and hydraulic oil. Atmospheric deposition, building materials and traffic also contribute but in a smaller scale.  This thesis is based on a case study of a Swedish stormwater system and is aimed to evaluate which concentrations that can be classified as elevated in the stormwater system. Another aim is to investigate various remedial measures against the elevated levels of PFAS in the stormwater system. This was accomplished by a literature study of remediation techniques for PFAS applicable to a case study of an investigated stormwater system. The case study was carried out in different parts to estimate the risks and possible measures. The parts were action levels, site-specific guideline values, sampling, requirements for actions or remediation, and possible remediations techniques. Action targets and site-specific guideline values were developed based on literature and results obtained using a conceptual model. The action target was stated as follow: Stormwater must not contribute to the distribution of per- och polyfluoroalkyl substances which in a long term can result in levels in surface water that pose a risk to human health. The site-specific guideline value of 4,4 ng/L PFOA-equivalents at the outlet of the storwater, was developed based on background levels and environmental quality standards from EU:s water directive for surface water.  Sampling and analysis of 22 different PFAS compounds was carried out at 10 different sampling locations in the actual stormwater system of the case study. The measured levels were compared to the site-specific guideline value, and an assessment of requirements for actions or remediation was carried out. The measured levels in the stormwater system were calculated, 5,76 ng/L PFOA-equivalents. Finally, an investigation was done of possible remedial actions and suitable remediations techniques. The stormwater system needed further investigations to make a legitimate decision about the need for stormwater treatment of PFAS. Investigations of potential point sources were suggested as adequate in order to apply the most resource efficient remedial action. Various remedial techniques were also considered for the stormwater system. The techniques were evaluated based on the criterias's; remedial capacity, water matrix, estimations of captial- and operating costs, energy requirements and availability on the market.