Global economic trends suggest that there is a need to generate sustainable renewable energy to meet growing global energy demands. Solar energy harnessed by concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systems has a potential for strong contributions to future energy supplies. However, as a relatively new technology, there is still a need for considerable research into the relationship between the technology and the solar resource. Research into CPV systems was carried out at the University of Ottawa’s Solar Cells and Nanostructured Device Laboratory (SUNLAB), focusing on the acquisition and assessment of meteorological and local solar resource datasets as inputs to more complex system (cell) models for energy yield assessment. An algorithm aimed at estimating the spectral profile of direct normal irradiance (DNI) was created. The algorithm was designed to use easily sourced low resolution meteorological datasets, temporal band pass filter measurement and an atmospheric radiative transfer model to determine a location specific solar spectrum. Its core design involved the use of an optical depth parameterization algorithm based on a published objective regression algorithm. Initial results showed a spectral agreement that corresponds to 0.56% photo-current difference in a modeled CPV cell when compared to measured spectrum. The common procedures and datasets used for long term CPV energy yield assessment was investigated. The aim was to quantitatively de-convolute various factors, especially meteorological factors responsible for error bias in CPV energy yield evaluation. Over the time period from June 2011 to August 2012, the analysis found that neglecting spectral variations resulted in a ~2% overestimation of energy yields. It was shown that clouds have the dominant impact on CPV energy yields, at the 60% level.

Στην περιγραφόμενη διπλωματική εργασία μελετώνται τα αυτόνομα φωτοβολταϊκά συστήματα και γίνεται η μελέτη για την τροφοδότηση μιας αγροικίας στην περιοχή της Πάτρας. Τέτοια συστήματα αποτελούνται από φωτοβολταϊκά πλαίσια, συσσωρευτές και ηλεκτρονικές διατάξεις. Τα πλαίσια είναι αυτά που συλλέγουν την ηλιακή ακτινοβολία και μέσω ενός μηχανισμού, που λέγεται φωτοβολταϊκό φαινόμενο, την μετατρέπουν σε ηλεκτρική ενέργεια. Οι συσσωρευτές αποθηκεύουν ηλεκτρική ενέργεια, την οποία εκμεταλλευόμαστε όταν η ζήτηση είναι μεγαλύτερη από την παραγωγή. Οι ηλεκτρονικές διατάξεις, δηλαδή ο μετατροπέας τάσης και ο ελεγκτής φόρτισης, ευθύνονται για την μετατροπή της συνεχούς ισχύος σε εναλλασσόμενη καθώς, επίσης, και για την ομαλή λειτουργία του συστήματος. Αφού γίνει παρουσίαση όλης της θεωρίας και των μαθηματικών τύπων που απαιτούνται, γίνεται εφαρμογή τους μέσω του σχεδιασμού του κατάλληλου φωτοβολταϊκού συστήματος για την τροφοδότηση της αγροικίας. / The subject of this diploma thesis is the study of stand-alone photovoltaic systems. Such systems include photovoltaic modules, batteries, inverters and charge controllers as well. The photovoltaic modules collect solar energy and transform it into electrical energy via a mechanism that is called photovoltaic effect. Batteries storage electrical energy and are used when the electrical demand is greater than the energy generated by the modules. Inverters are used to convert DC power into AC power and charge controllers connect or disconnect the batteries from the system, as needed. After presenting the theory data required, a stand-alone photovoltaic system is designed so as to supply a country house.

Η παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία πραγματεύεται την μελέτη και κατασκευή μιας διάταξης μετρήσεων για φωτοβολταϊκά συστήματα. Η εργασία αυτή εκπονήθηκε στο Εργαστήριο Ηλεκτρομηχανικής Μετατροπής Ενέργειας του Τμήματος Ηλεκτρολόγων Μηχανικών και Τεχνολογίας Υπολογιστών της Πολυτεχνικής Σχολής του Πανεπιστημίου Πατρών. Σκοπός είναι η υλοποίηση ενός εργαλείου με το οποίο ο χρήστης θα μπορεί να έχει την επίβλεψη των μεγεθών της ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας που διακινούνται από το σύστημα του. Για παράδειγμα να γνωρίζει τα ποσά ισχύος που παράγονται, τα επίπεδα της τάσης και του ρεύματος ακόμα και τα ποσά ισχύος με τα οποία μπορεί να τροφοδοτήσει το δίκτυο της ΔΕΗ αν σκοπεύει να χρησιμοποιεί μέρος της παραγόμενης ενέργειας για της ανάγκες του και να πουλά το περίσσευμα. Αρχικά έγινε η μελέτη και κατασκευή μιας πλακέτας για την προσαρμογή του πραγματικού σήματος του ρεύματος και της τάσης. Ο επεξεργαστής ο οποίος χρησιμοποιείται σε τέτοιου είδους εφαρμογές δεν μπορεί να «διαβάσει» σήματα των οποίων το πλάτος ξεπερνά τα 5 V. Οπότε πρέπει εμείς να φέρουμε τα μεγάλα σήματα σε τέτοια κλίμακα ώστε να είναι διαχειρίσιμα. Ακόμα πρέπει να μετατρέψουμε το σήμα ρεύματος σε σήμα τάσης ανάλογης κλίμακας για να είναι διαχειρίσιμο και αυτό από το υπολογιστικό σύστημα. Στη συνέχεια έγινε μελέτη της διαδικασίας της δειγματοληψίας και αφού υπολογίστηκαν και το SNR, η το ελάχιστο σφάλμα δειγματοληψίας σχεδίασα ένα κατωδιαβατό φίλτρο τύπου Butterworth 4ης τάξης για να περιορίσω τα φαινόμενα aliasing που δημιουργούνται λόγω αλλοίωσης. Το επόμενο βήμα, το οποίο ήταν και το πιο δύσκολο και απαιτητικό, ήταν να σχεδιαστεί ο κώδικας με τον οποίο θα γινόταν η δειγματοληψία και ο υπολογισμός των μεγεθών που μας ενδιέφεραν σε πραγματικό χρόνο (real time). Έγινε πολλαπλασιασμός σε γλώσσα μηχανής (assembly) και χρήση μόνο ακεραίων τιμών για να γίνει ο κώδικας όσο γίνεται πιο γρήγορος μιας και σε ένα τέτοιο σύστημα το βασικότερο που μας απασχολεί είναι η ταχύτητα των πράξεων. Ακόμα χρειάστηκε να συντονιστούν με σήματα interrupt διάφορα περιφερειακά του μικροελεγκτή για να δουλέψει σωστά το σύστημα. Τέλος έγινε προσπάθεια διασύνδεσης του υπάρχοντος προγράμματος με Η/Υ μέσω σειριακής για να γίνει απεικόνιση των αποτελεσμάτων μέσω μιας γραφικής διεπαφής (GUI). / This thesis is about a measuring system for a Photo voltaic Array connected to the grid. In the first chapter there is a survey for the importance of sustainable power sources. Next the project is presented. After that there is a chapter about the sensors that are used. The method of sampling and and filtering the signal is described in the next 3 chapters. Last but not least in the last chapter the user interface is presented

Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία διερευνώνται οι προδιαγραφές για την εγκατάσταση και τη διασύνδεση με το δίκτυο διανομής ενός οικιακού φωτοβολταϊκού συστήματος. Ο όρος «οικιακό» αναφέρεται σε φωτοβολταϊκά συστήματα μικρής ισχύος, έως 10 kWp, τα οποία τοποθετούνται πάνω σε κτίρια ή ενσωματώνονται σε αυτά ενώ παρέχουν ηλεκτρική ενέργεια στο δίκτυο μέσω της ίδιας παροχής του κτιρίου. Τα οικιακά φωτοβολταϊκά παρουσιάζουν πολλά πλεονεκτήματα ώστε να αποτελέσουν πόλο έλξης για τους μελλοντικούς παραγωγούς όπως θερμική μόνωση, ηχομόνωση, ηλιο-προστασία, δεν απαιτούν επιπλέον χώρο για την εγκατάσταση τους, συνεισφέρουν στην κάλυψη του φορτίου αιχμής, δε περιλαμβάνουν κινητά μέρη, προσφέρουν έναν ελκυστικό σχεδιασμό κτιρίου και αντικαθιστούν συμβατικά κατασκευαστικά υλικά. Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται μια θεωρητική ανασκόπηση της φύσης της ηλιακής ακτινοβολίας. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια περιγραφή του ηλιακού κυττάρου, των φωτοβολταϊκών πλαισίων και των αρχών λειτουργίας τους, καθώς και παρουσιάζονται τα ηλεκτρικά χαρακτηριστικά τους και οι παράγοντες που τα επηρεάζουν. Εν συνεχεία, στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο μπορούμε να δούμε τα κριτήρια με τα οποία επιλέγεται ο τόπος και ο τρόπος εγκατάστασης ενός φωτοβολταϊκού συστήματος, και παρουσιάζονται οι αρχές σχεδιασμού του συστήματος ξεκινώντας από την επιλογή του αντιστροφέα μέχρι τα μέσα προστασίας και την καλωδίωση. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται οι απαιτήσεις που πρέπει να τηρούνται ώστε να καθίσταται εφικτή η διασύνδεση με το δίκτυο ΧΤ μιας εγκατάστασης παραγωγής ενέργειας. Επιπλέον, εξετάζονται τα κριτήρια τήρησης των ανωτέρω απαιτήσεων, όπως η επάρκεια του δικτύου, η διαμόρφωση των προστασιών της διασύνδεσης, οι μεταβολές της τάσης, το φαινόμενο flicker, η έγχυση αρμονικών, η νησιδοποίηση και οι επιπτώσεις στα συστήματα Τηλεχειρισμών Ακουστικής Συχνότητας. Εν τέλει, στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο πραγματοποιούνται προσομοιώσεις για την μελέτη των παραπάνω προδιαγραφών σε δύο διατάξεις που εξομοιώθηκαν με το πρόγραμμα PSCAD. Η μια διάταξη περιλαμβάνει μια φωτοβολταϊκή συστοιχία ισχύος 9.6 kWp, έναν μετατροπέα υποβιβασμού τάσης ο οποίος κάνει την ανίχνευση του σημείου μεγίστης ισχύος, έναν τριφασικό αντιστροφέα με παλμοδότηση SPWM, το φίλτρο LC για τη μείωση του αρμονικού περιεχομένου, έναν μετασχηματιστή απομόνωσης και ανύψωσης τάσης 150V/400V, το δίκτυο ΧΤ και το οικιακό φορτίο. Η δεύτερη διάταξη διαφοροποιείται από την πρώτη στο ότι δεν περιλαμβάνει μετατροπέα υποβιβασμού τάσης, έτσι ο αντιστροφέας αναλαμβάνει την ανίχνευση του σημείου μεγίστης ισχύος. Αρχικά παρουσιάζεται η απόκριση των συστημάτων σε κανονικές συνθήκες λειτουργίας και μέση φόρτιση, ενώ εξετάζεται και η επίδραση των τιμών των ελεγκτών στην απόκριση τους. Στη συνέχεια, γίνεται η μελέτη αρμονικών και η διερεύνηση της επίδρασης της ακτινοβολίας στους συντελεστές ολικής αρμονικής παραμόρφωσης ρεύματος και τάσης, και στο συντελεστή ισχύος. Έπειτα εξετάζεται η απόκριση των συστημάτων σε απότομες μεταβολές της ακτινοβολίας και του φορτίου. Τέλος διερευνώνται οι διακυμάνσεις της τάσης που εμφανίζονται σε οριακές καταστάσεις λειτουργίας του φωτοβολταϊκού και φόρτισης του δικτύου ενώ εξετάζονται και οι επιπτώσεις στα συστήματα Τηλεχειρισμών Ακουστικής Συχνότητας. / The aim of the present thesis is the study of the installation and grid-interconnection requirements and specifications of a domestic photovoltaic system. The term “domestic” refers to low power photovoltaic systems (up to 10 kWp), installed or integrated into buildings while providing electric power to the grid through the buildings main power connection. Domestic photovoltaic systems have a number of advantages, such as thermal / sound insulation, solar protection, they do not require extra space in order to be installed, they can contribute in the case of high power demand, they do not require any moving parts, they can prove attractive in terms of building design and even eventually substitute conventional building materials. These advantages are bound to put them in the center of electric power producers’ attention in the immediate future. In the first chapter a theoretic overview of the nature of solar radiation is presented. In the second chapter, photovoltaic cells and panels as well as their function and electrical properties are briefly analyzed. In the third chapter, the criteria of the photovoltaic system’s installation location and method – from the selection of a proper inverter to the system’s electrical protection equipment and wiring. In the fourth chapter the requirements that must be met in order to establish a connection with the power distribution grid are being presented. The relevant criteria such as: a) power grid adequacy, b) proper design and configuration of the grid connection protection equipment, c) voltage variations, d) flickering, e) voltage/current harmonics, f) islanding, and g) effects on 175Hz remote-operation systems are being studied. Finally, in the fifth chapter, PSCAD-realized simulations with two configurations are presented. The first configuration consists of a 9.6kWp photovoltaic array, a dc-to-dc buck converter which implements a maximum-power-point-tracking algorithm, a SPWM-pulsed three-phase inverter, a LC harmonic filter, an isolating 150V/400Vvoltage transformer, the low-voltage grid and a domestic electric load. The second configuration does not include a buck converter and thus, the maximum-power-point-tracking algorithm is implemented on the inverter. The systems’ response in normal operating conditions and with a medium load as well as the effect of different controller gains in the aforementioned response are initially presented. Afterwards, the system’s voltage/current harmonics and the effect of solar radiation in the Total Harmonic Distortion and Power factors are being studied. In continuation the system’s response in rapid change of solar irradiance / electrical load is presented. Finally, voltage variations which appear in boundary operating conditions of the grid and photovoltaic system, as well as the impact on 175Hz remote-operation systems are studied.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo explorar a forma de planos de fachada vinculados à incidência solar, potencializando a aplicação de sistemas fotovoltaicos. A identificação e parametrização de formas segundo os princípios geométricos de captação fotovoltaica, sugerem a aplicação de uma metodologia de projeto para superfícies de fachadas fotovoltaicas, de modo a otimizar a incidência direta da radiação solar, incorporada a volumetria da edificação. O modelo de otimização de fachadas fotovoltaicas consiste em quatro etapas. Inicialmente define-se a tecnologia fotovoltaica e a localização geográfica (1). Posteriormente, é realizada a modelagem elementar tridimensional (2) através do editor de algoritmos gráficos Grasshopper – integrado à ferramenta de modelagem Rhinoceros3D – estabelecendo assim, as restrições e variáveis da forma. Na terceira etapa, correlacionamse transformações geométricas tridimensionais (twist, taper e shear) e incidência solar (3) por meio dos softwares Ecotect Analysis e Grasshopper. Com isso, os parâmetros dimensionais atribuídos às variáveis – transformações geométricas – são vinculados aos parâmetros de radiação solar, visando à geração de formas. Após a seleção das formas com maior potencial fotovoltaico, identificam-se as zonas com maior incidência de radiação solar e realiza-se a manipulação dos pontos de controle das superfícies NURBS (4). Através das transformações geométricas taper, shear e twist foi possível gerar um conjunto de soluções otimizadas, correlacionando dados energéticos e geométricos, integrando métodos de geração de formas e avaliação performática da radiação solar. O estudo identificou que as possibilidades de articulação entre os planos fotovoltaicos e a eficiência energética têm implicações positivas, correlacionando variabilidade formal e geração de energia elétrica. / This work aims explore the shape of façade planes linked to the solar incidence, in order to optimize the use of photovoltaic systems. The identification and parameterization of forms according to geometric principles of photovoltaic capture suggest the application of a design methodology for optimizing the photovoltaic surface façade in order to optimize direct solar radiation, incorporating the volume of the building. The optimization model of photovoltaic façade consists of four steps. Initially decide on the photovoltaic technology and geographic location (1). Subsequently, three-dimensional elementary modeling is performed (2) through the graphic-algorithm editor, Grasshopper, – integrated with the modeling tool, Rhinoceros 3D, – thus establishing, restrictions and variables in shape. In the third stage, threedimensional geometric transformations are correlated (twist, taper and shear) and solar incidence (3) through the computer interfaces of Ecotect Analysis and Grasshopper software. With this, the dimensional parameters assigned to the variables – geometric transformations – are linked to parameters of solar radiation, in order to generate shapes. After the selection of potential photovoltaic shapes, zones with the greatest incident solar radiation are identified and the control points of NURBS surface are manipulated (4). Using the geometric transformations taper, shear and twist, it was possible to generate a set of optimal solutions, correlating geometric and energetic data, integrating shape generating methods and performatic evaluation of solar exposure. The work identified that possibilities of articulation between photovoltaic planes and energetic efficiency have positive results, correlating shape variability and electricity generation.

Les problématiques environnementales (conservation de l’environnement et lutte contre la pollution), économiques (demande d’énergie de plus en plus forte pour un développement socio-économique) et politiques (démocratisation de l’accès à l’énergie) mondiales actuelles imposent un changement de comportement en matière de consommation énergétiques afin de ne pas compromettre la qualité de vie des générations futures. A cette fin, l’utilisation des énergies renouvelables, dont l’énergie solaire photovoltaïque, se présente comme une des solutions les plus prometteuses. Néanmoins, du fait de leurs intermittences, il peut s’avérer nécessaire de recourir à des dispositifs de stockage de l’énergie. Ceux-ci sont généralement utilisés dans le cas des sites isolés du réseau électrique mais de plus en plus de travaux de recherches portent sur l’intégration d'unités de stockage dans les systèmes photovoltaïques connectés aux réseaux électriques (« intelligents »). La mise en œuvre des moyens de stockage ainsi permet d’optimiser la production et d’améliorer la rentabilité de l’électricité produite tout en permettant de lisser les appels en puissances de pointe du réseau. Pour les endroits difficilement accessibles, le stockage de l’électricité permet d’assurer une autonomie énergétique en ajustant la production aux besoins de consommation et inversement. Ceci entraine un processus continu de charges et décharges des unités de stockage qui peut modifier profondément les propriétés physico-chimiques et électriques des systèmes de stockage avec comme conséquence la réduction de la durée de fonctionnement de l’installation. Généralement, les caractéristiques techniques des unités de stockage sont déterminées par les constructeurs dans des conditions idéales de fonctionnement, notamment à courant et température constants. Aussi, lorsque le fonctionnement a lieu dans des conditions climatiques austères, telles que celles des pays du Sahel, la durée de vie réelle de ces systèmes peut s’avérer très différente des prévisions se basant sur les données du constructeur. Ces pays, grands gisements solaires, sont caractérisés par des sols arides et de grandes étendues désertiques. Il y fait très chaud et les populations sont clairsemées en petits hameaux, ce qui fait des systèmes photovoltaïques autonomes les meilleurs candidats pour satisfaire les besoins énergétiques. Pour un dimensionnement approprié et une mise en œuvre efficace, il est important de connaître le comportement des constituants du système dans les conditions climatiques des sites cibles. Il y a lieu en effet de connaître les impacts de celles-ci sur la durée de vie et les caractéristiques des composants, de déterminer le besoin éventuel de dispositifs de conditionnement et d’envisager les études scientifiques et techniques de leur mise en œuvre. Les travaux de recherche envisagés ont pour but de répondre à ces multiples questions en s'appuyant sur une plate-forme expérimentale et des modèles, et de produire à termes des outils informatiques d’aide à la décision / Environmental issues (environmental conservation and the fight against pollution), economic (energy demand increasingly high for socio-economic development) and political (democratic access to energy) current global impose a change in energy consumption-related behavior in order not to compromise the quality of life of future generations. To this end, the use of renewable energies, including solar PV, is as one of the most promising solutions. However, because of their intermittent, it may be necessary to use in energy storage devices. These are generally used in the case of isolated sites of the electricity grid but more and more research work focuses on the integration of storage units in photovoltaic systems connected to electricity networks ( "smart"). The implementation of the storage means and to optimize production and improve the profitability of electricity while enabling smooth network calls in peak powers.For hard to reach areas, the electricity storage ensures energy independence by adjusting production to consumer needs and vice versa. This causes a continuous process of charging and discharging of the storage units that can profoundly change the physicochemical properties and electrical storage systems with consequent reduction in operating life of the installation. Generally, the technical characteristics of storage units are determined by manufacturers under ideal operating conditions, including current and constant temperature. Also, when the operation takes place in austere weather conditions, such as those of the Sahel, the real life of these systems can be very different predictions based on the manufacturer. These countries, large solar fields, are characterized by arid soils and large stretches of desert very hot and the people he makes are scattered in small hamlets, making stand-alone photovoltaic systems the best candidates to meet energy needs. For proper design and effective implementation, it is important to know the behavior of the system components in the climatic conditions of the target sites. It must indeed know the impact of these on the life and characteristics of components, to determine the possible need for conditioning devices and consider the scientific and technical studies of their implementation. The proposed research aim to answer these many questions based on an experimental platform and models, and produce terms of IT tools for decision support

Submitted by Lara Oliveira (lara@ufersa.edu.br) on 2017-06-29T18:40:34Z No. of bitstreams: 1 GregoryLSS_DISSERT.pdf: 2365446 bytes, checksum: d4abe11e0270841ffc2cbf5442616e03 (MD5) / Rejected by Vanessa Christiane (referencia@ufersa.edu.br), reason: Corrigir referência. on 2017-07-03T12:21:23Z (GMT) / Submitted by Lara Oliveira (lara@ufersa.edu.br) on 2017-07-04T14:44:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 GregoryLSS_DISSERT.pdf: 2365446 bytes, checksum: d4abe11e0270841ffc2cbf5442616e03 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Vanessa Christiane (referencia@ufersa.edu.br) on 2017-07-04T16:49:00Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 GregoryLSS_DISSERT.pdf: 2365446 bytes, checksum: d4abe11e0270841ffc2cbf5442616e03 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Vanessa Christiane (referencia@ufersa.edu.br) on 2017-07-04T16:58:35Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 GregoryLSS_DISSERT.pdf: 2365446 bytes, checksum: d4abe11e0270841ffc2cbf5442616e03 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-04T16:58:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 GregoryLSS_DISSERT.pdf: 2365446 bytes, checksum: d4abe11e0270841ffc2cbf5442616e03 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-21 / Distributed photovoltaic systems currently have a great potential for growth, due to several factors that make it quite attractive, among them: tariff parity reached in the coming years in some countries, reduction of installation costs, government incentives, and sector regulation, among others. Since these are relatively new types of systems, many researches have been carried out to study the behavior of a distributed photovoltaic generation system connected to the distribution grid. In this sense, the main objective of this work is to analyze the impact generated in energy quality by the installation of a Grid-Connected Photovoltaic System (GCPV) installed in UFERSA, located in Mossoró/RN. Through the evaluation of the main parameters of energy quality generated by the GCPV, it was verified that the installation of a distributed photovoltaic system connected at low voltage causes small changes in some parameters, such as elevation in the steady state voltage, reduction of the power factor of the installation and increase in the value of the total harmonic distortion rate of current. In the work in question, all variations found did not exceed the limits established by the current regulations. It was also verified that the installation of the GCPV caused a daily reduction of up to 38% in the average active energy consumed, considering the phase in which the system is interconnected / Os sistemas fotovoltaicos distribuídos possuem atualmente um grande potencial de crescimento, devido a diversos fatores que o tornam bastante atraentes, dentre eles: paridade tarifária sendo alcançada nos próximos anos em alguns países, redução dos custos de instalação, incentivos governamentais, regulação do setor, entre outros. Por tratar-se de tipos de sistemas relativamente novos, muitas pesquisas têm sido desenvolvidas no intuito de estudar o comportamento de um sistema de geração fotovoltaica distribuída, conectado à rede elétrica de distribuição. Neste sentido, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo principal analisar o impacto gerado na qualidade de energia pela instalação de um Sistema Fotovoltaico Conectado à Rede (SFCR) instalado na UFERSA, localizada em Mossoró/RN. Através da avaliação dos principais parâmetros de qualidade de energia gerados pelo SFCR verificou-se que a instalação de um sistema fotovoltaico distribuído conectado em baixa tensão provoca pequenas alterações em alguns parâmetros, tais como: elevação na tensão de regime permanente, redução do fator de potência da instalação e acréscimo no valor da taxa de distorção harmônica total de corrente. No trabalho em questão, todas as variações constatadas não ultrapassaram os limites estabelecidos pelas normas vigentes. Constatou-se, ainda, que a instalação do SFCR provocou redução diária de até 38% na energia ativa média consumida, considerando a fase na qual o sistema está interconectado / 2017-06-29

The study is focusing on comparison of efficiency and ecological impacts of photovoltaic power stations depending on their locations in the Czech Republic. The report gives us an overview of photovoltaic power stations efficiency and also their environmental value by minimising CO2 emissions due to replacing conventional energy technologies. The research is based on data taken from energy audits of photovoltaic power stations in Vidov (South Bohemia), in Hodonice (South Moravia) and Lahošť (North Bohemia). The measured data of efficiency and CO2 savings are compared to forecast data from numerical weather prediction models PVSYST, PVGIS and Meteonorm. The project revealed, that photovoltaic power stations efficiency directly depends on their geographic location. Decisive factor was sunlight. Paired comparison showed, that there is a difference between photovoltaic power stations in Lahošť, Hodonice (P < 0,01) and Vidov (P < 0,05). The difference between real and expected datas from each photovoltaic systems was conclusive (p < 0,01). Significant was also factor of month (p < 0,001).

Este trabalho tem como objetivo explorar a forma de planos de fachada vinculados à incidência solar, potencializando a aplicação de sistemas fotovoltaicos. A identificação e parametrização de formas segundo os princípios geométricos de captação fotovoltaica, sugerem a aplicação de uma metodologia de projeto para superfícies de fachadas fotovoltaicas, de modo a otimizar a incidência direta da radiação solar, incorporada a volumetria da edificação. O modelo de otimização de fachadas fotovoltaicas consiste em quatro etapas. Inicialmente define-se a tecnologia fotovoltaica e a localização geográfica (1). Posteriormente, é realizada a modelagem elementar tridimensional (2) através do editor de algoritmos gráficos Grasshopper – integrado à ferramenta de modelagem Rhinoceros3D – estabelecendo assim, as restrições e variáveis da forma. Na terceira etapa, correlacionamse transformações geométricas tridimensionais (twist, taper e shear) e incidência solar (3) por meio dos softwares Ecotect Analysis e Grasshopper. Com isso, os parâmetros dimensionais atribuídos às variáveis – transformações geométricas – são vinculados aos parâmetros de radiação solar, visando à geração de formas. Após a seleção das formas com maior potencial fotovoltaico, identificam-se as zonas com maior incidência de radiação solar e realiza-se a manipulação dos pontos de controle das superfícies NURBS (4). Através das transformações geométricas taper, shear e twist foi possível gerar um conjunto de soluções otimizadas, correlacionando dados energéticos e geométricos, integrando métodos de geração de formas e avaliação performática da radiação solar. O estudo identificou que as possibilidades de articulação entre os planos fotovoltaicos e a eficiência energética têm implicações positivas, correlacionando variabilidade formal e geração de energia elétrica. / This work aims explore the shape of façade planes linked to the solar incidence, in order to optimize the use of photovoltaic systems. The identification and parameterization of forms according to geometric principles of photovoltaic capture suggest the application of a design methodology for optimizing the photovoltaic surface façade in order to optimize direct solar radiation, incorporating the volume of the building. The optimization model of photovoltaic façade consists of four steps. Initially decide on the photovoltaic technology and geographic location (1). Subsequently, three-dimensional elementary modeling is performed (2) through the graphic-algorithm editor, Grasshopper, – integrated with the modeling tool, Rhinoceros 3D, – thus establishing, restrictions and variables in shape. In the third stage, threedimensional geometric transformations are correlated (twist, taper and shear) and solar incidence (3) through the computer interfaces of Ecotect Analysis and Grasshopper software. With this, the dimensional parameters assigned to the variables – geometric transformations – are linked to parameters of solar radiation, in order to generate shapes. After the selection of potential photovoltaic shapes, zones with the greatest incident solar radiation are identified and the control points of NURBS surface are manipulated (4). Using the geometric transformations taper, shear and twist, it was possible to generate a set of optimal solutions, correlating geometric and energetic data, integrating shape generating methods and performatic evaluation of solar exposure. The work identified that possibilities of articulation between photovoltaic planes and energetic efficiency have positive results, correlating shape variability and electricity generation.

Orientador: Luís Carlos Origa de Oliveira / Resumo: As profundas mudanças que os sistemas de distribuição de energia elétrica vêm experimentando, devido à crescente penetração de unidades de Geração Distribuída (GD), têm resultado, inevitavelmente, na efetiva ruptura da forma tradicional de controlar e operar o sistema elétrico. A conexão em larga escala de unidades de GD impõe às distribuidoras de energia uma série de desafios técnicos, econômicos e regulatórios, necessários para preservar a continuidade e o nível de Qualidade da Energia Elétrica (QEE) na rede. Além dos benefícios que justificam o investimento, os sistemas de GD contribuem com alguns impactos negativos para o sistema elétrico, entre eles, destacam-se aqui a geração de harmônicas e a injeção de corrente contínua (CC) na rede, em regime permanente, e seus efeitos sobre os transformadores de potência. O incremento de uma componente de fluxo CC em seu enrolamento secundário altera o ponto de operação natural e eficiente do transformador, trazendo prejuízo não só à sua vida útil, mas também à sua funcionalidade na rede. Esta condição favorece a geração e propagação de harmônicas adicionais no sistema alimentador, afetando negativamente o sistema elétrico, sendo esta análise uma contribuição original deste trabalho. Neste sentido, considera-se com grande relevância o estudo de comportamento dos equipamentos projetados para operar essencialmente com sinais em corrente alternada (CA) e que passam a ser submetidos, simultaneamente, a excitações com corrente contínua. ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The deep changes that electric power distribution systems have been experiencing due to the increasing number of Distributed Generation (GD) units, have inevitably resulted in the effective rupture of the traditional way of controlling and operating the electrical system. The large-scale connection of GD units imposes on energy utilities many technical, economic and regulatory challenges necessary to preserve the continuity and the Electric Power Quality (EPQ) level on the grid. In addition to the benefits that justify the investment, GD systems have some negative impacts to the electrical system, among them, the harmonic generation and Direct Current (DC) injection on the grid, and its effects in the power transformers. The increase of a DC flow component in the secondary winding changes the standard and efficient operational point of the transformer, causing damage not only to its lifespan but also to its functionality on the grid. This condition favors the additional harmonics generation and propagation in the feeder system, adversely affecting the electrical system, being this analysis an original contribution of this work. In this way of thinking, it is considered with great relevance the study of the equipment behavior designed to operate essentially with signals in alternating current (AC) and simultaneously subjected to excitations with direct current (DC). Whereas the objective of analyzing not only the effect but also the cause of the double excitation, this thesis ... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor