Les Glioblastomes représentent les tumeurs cérébrales primaires les plus fréquentes chez l'adulte. Nous avons mis en évidence le rôle du récepteur PPARß/delta dans le caractère tumoral des glioblastomes. Nous avons montré que l'activation de ce récepteur stimule la prolifération et la migration des cellules de glioblastome T98G. Nous avons également montré que l'activation de PPARß/delta induit l'expression du gène Siah-1L et que la surexpression de ce gène stimule la prolifération et la migration cellulaire des glioblastomes. Nous avons ensuite étudié la régulation du gène Siah-1L humain et montré que son expression est induite par PPARß/delta. Le clonage du promoteur de ce gène et l'étude de sa régulation a permis de montrer que son induction par PPARß/delta est médiée par un élément de réponse situé au niveau du promoteur / Glioblastoma represent the most frequent primary brain tumor in adults. We highlighted the role of PPARß/delta in glioblastoma tumorigenesis. We have shown that activation of this receptor stimulates proliferation and migration of glioblastoma cells T98G. We also showed that activation of PPARß/delta induces the expression of Siah-1L gene and that overexpression of Siah-1L stimulates cell proliferation and migration of glioblastoma cells. We also studied the regulation of Siah-1L gene and showed that its expression is induced by PPARß/delta. Cloning of Siah-1L gene promoter sequence and the study of its regulation showed that the induction of the expression of Siah-1L by PPARß/delta is mediated by a response element located at the promoter sequence

La barrière hémato-encéphalique (BHE) est une interface localisée au niveau des cellules endothéliales des capillaires cérébraux. Elle présente des caractéristiques physiques et métaboliques spécifiques restreignant les échanges entre le sang et le cerveau dans le but de maintenir l’homéostasie du système nerveux central. Dans des conditions pathologiques comme l’ischémie cérébrale, la perte de son intégrité provoque l’apparition d’un oedème vasogénique qui aggrave considérablement le pronostic vital des patients. Malheureusement, les mécanismes impliqués dans l’hyperperméabilité vasculaire demeurent inconnus, ce qui limite l’utilisation de la seule thérapie disponible à 5% des patients. Depuis qu’aucun agent pharmacologique n’a réussit à être neuroprotecteur, notre compréhension des rapports entre le sang et le cerveau est remise en cause. La complexité des interactions entre la BHE et les cellules nerveuses a mené au concept d’une unité fonctionnelle dite neurovasculaire. Ainsi de nouvelles stratégies de protection émergent à partir d’observations au niveau vasculaire. Ainsi la première partie de nos travaux a consisté à étudier l’effet vasculoprotecteur potentiel du fénofibrate, un hypolipémiant agoniste du récepteur nucléaire PPAR-a (Peroxisome Proliferator- Activated Receptor-alpha), dont le bénéfice est observé en clinique depuis quelques années et plus récemment dans une étude expérimentale menée chez la souris. Les mécanismes de cette protection aujourd’hui inconnus, pourraient impliquer la BHE réputée très peu perméable à ce fibrate. Un renforcement de la BHE limiterait la formation de l’oedème cérébral. Pour cela nous avons adapté un modèle in vitro syngénique murin de BHE aux études de perméabilité en condition d’OGD (oxygen and glucose deprivation) mimant les conséquences immédiates de l’occlusion, toute première étape de l’accident vasculaire cérébral (AVC) ischémique. Le modèle consiste en une co-culture de cellules endothéliales primaires de capillaires cérébraux et de cellules gliales primaires. Nos travaux démontrent qu’un traitement préventif au fénofibrate protège l’endothélium en limitant l’hyperperméabilité induite par l’OGD. Cette action protectrice cible exclusivement l’endothélium et dépend de l’activation de PPAR-a démontré par l’absence d’effet protecteur sur les cellules endothéliales dont le gène codant pour PPAR-a a été invalidé. La seconde partie de l’étude s’est intéressée aux dommages vasculaires de la reperfusion, étape plus tardive de l’ischémie cérébrale connue pour aggraver l’oedème vasogénique et mener à des hémorragies fatales. A l’aide de notre modèle in vitro, nous avons étudié l’effet de la réoxygénation sur la perméabilité vasculaire dans le but de se rapprocher des conditions ischémiques in vivo. Après une incubation en condition d’OGD, la co-culture est replacée dans un milieu réoxygéné pendant une période allant de 2h à 24h. La mesure de la perméabilité vasculaire a démontré un profil multiphasique de l’ouverture de la BHE dépendant de la présence des cellules gliales. L’analyse en microscopie électronique des cellules endothéliales a suggéré une modulation fine de la fonctionnalité des jonctions serrées endothéliales. De plus, l’étude en IRM de diffusion chez la souris in vivo a révélé des mouvements d’eau qui suggèrent une perturbation de l’homéostasie hydrique du parenchyme cérébral au voisinage de l’occlusion dans les étapes précoces mais aussi dans les étapes tardives. En conclusion, l’ensemble des travaux met en avant la possibilité d’une préservation pharmacologique de l’intégrité de la BHE au début de l’ischémie cérébrale. Celle-ci montre l’intérêt des approches in vitro utilisant un modèle cellulaire pertinent et caractérisé. La validation de la cible cellulaire et moléculaire du fénofibrate à l’aide de notre modèle ouvre une première voie d’exploration des mécanismes impliqués dans ce phénomène de protection microvasculaire précoce. Cependant, la dysfonction retardée de la BHE est également un élément à prendre en compte pour se rapprocher de la physiopathologie de l’ischémie in vivo et espérer à terme une amélioration de l’approche thérapeutique de cette pathologie. / The Blood brain barrier (BBB) is an interface localised at brain capillary endothelial cells. The BBB possesses both physical and metabolic restrictive properties aiming at the maintenance of the central nervous system homeostasis. But under pathological conditions like ischemic stroke, the loss of BBB integrity induces a cerebral vasogenic edema which considerably worsens the vital prognosis of patients. The mechanisms underlying this vascular hyperpermeability are currently unknown thus limiting the use of the only medical intervention available at only 5% of stroke patients. Since no pharmacological molecule succeeded in being neuroprotective, our understanding of the relationships between blood and brain is questioned. The complex interactions between the BBB and nervous cells have lead to the concept of a functional unit, termed the neurovascular unit. Thus, new strategies are recently emerging from observation of vascular events. Thus, the first aim of our study was to test the potential vasculoprotective action of fenofibrate, a hypolipemic drug known as an activator of the nuclear receptor PPAR-a a (Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-alpha), as benefit against stroke was observed in clinics since a few years, and recently reported in an experimental study. Yet unknown mechanisms, the protective effect may be exerted on the BBB since reported as impermeable to this compound. An early tightening of the BBB would limit the extent of brain edema. Hence, we have adapted a mouse syngenic BBB in vitro cell model to permeability studies under the stress condition found at the early stage of ischemic stroke defined in vitro as oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD). This stress simulates the early consequences of occlusion. This model consists of a co-culture of primary brain capillary endothelial cells together with primary glial cells. We have demonstrated that a preventive treatment with fenofibrate has a protective effect on the BBB by limiting the hyperpermeability induced by the OGD condition. This effect targets endothelial cells exclusively and depends on PPAR-a activation, as revealed by the absence of protective action of fenofibrate on PPAR-a deficient endothelial cells. The second part of the study has focused on vascular reperfusion injury, a later stage of ischemia known to worsen vasogenic oedema and to lead to fatal haemorrhage. Using our in vitro BBB model, we have studied the effect of reoxygenation on vascular permeability in order to closely simulate in vivo ischemic condition. Following incubation under OGD condition, the co-cultures were placed into an oxygenated culture medium from 2h to 24h. The BBB permeability demonstrated a multiphasic opening of the BBB which depended on glial cells presence. Electronic microscopy analysis of BBB endothelial cells suggested a fine modulation of tight junction functionality. Moreover, the MRI diffusion analysis in mice has revealed particular water movements suggesting an early disturbance in water homeostasis of brain parenchyma in the vicinity of occlusion. In conclusion, this work put forward the idea of a pharmacological BBB protection at the early stage of ischemic stroke. This demonstrates the relevance of in vitro approaches using a pertinent and well characterised cell model. The validation of cellular and molecular targets of fenofibrate opens a way of first exploration of mechanisms involved in this early microvascular protection phenomenon. But the late BBB dysfunction also needs to be taken into account for a complete fitting with in vivo stroke pathophysiology and an improvement of the therapeutic approaches to this pathology.

Yau Wing Yiu, Winifred. / On t.p. "alpha"s appear as the Greek letter. / Thesis submitted in: October 2006. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 91-98). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Abstract --- p.i / Abstract (Chinese version) --- p.iv / Acknowledgements --- p.vi / Table of Contents --- p.vii / List of Abbreviations --- p.xii / List of Figures --- p.xiv / List of Tables --- p.xvi / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- What are PPARs? --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- PPAR ligands - peroxisome proliferators --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.3 --- PPAR isoforms --- p.2 / Chapter 1.2 --- Biological roles of PPARα --- p.3 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Lipid metabolism --- p.3 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Glucose metabolism --- p.4 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- Inflammation --- p.5 / Chapter 1.2.4 --- Oxidative stress --- p.5 / Chapter 1.2.5 --- Cell proliferation and apoptosis --- p.6 / Chapter 1.3 --- PPARα in health and diseases --- p.6 / Chapter 1.3.1 --- Wound-healing --- p.6 / Chapter 1.3.2 --- Anti-atherogenesis --- p.7 / Chapter 1.3.3 --- Neuroprotection --- p.7 / Chapter 1.3.4 --- Carcineogenesis --- p.7 / Chapter 1.4 --- PPARα-regulated and starvation inducible gene (PPSIG) --- p.8 / Chapter 1.4.1 --- PPSIG is a PPARα target gene --- p.8 / Chapter 1.4.2 --- Computer-assisted predictions on PPSIG --- p.9 / Chapter 1.4.3 --- Current characterization of PPSIG --- p.10 / Chapter 1.5 --- Objectives of the present study --- p.11 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Materials and Methods --- p.12 / Chapter 2.1 --- Materials --- p.12 / Chapter 2.2 --- Animals and treatment --- p.13 / Chapter 2.3 --- Cloning of PPSIG into pThioHis and pTYB expression vectors --- p.13 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- PCR amplification of PPSIG cDNA insert --- p.13 / Chapter 2.3.1.1 --- PPSIG cDNA insert for pThioHis vector --- p.13 / Chapter 2.3.1.2 --- PPSIG cDNA insert for pTYB vector --- p.15 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Restriction enzyme digestion of PPSIG cDNA insert and pThioHis vector --- p.18 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Restriction enzyme digestion of PPSIG cDNA insert and pTYB vector --- p.20 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Ligation and transformation --- p.20 / Chapter 2.3.5 --- Screening for recombinants by phenol/chloroform method --- p.21 / Chapter 2.3.6 --- Confirmation of recombinant plasmid by restriction enzyme digestion --- p.22 / Chapter 2.3.6.1 --- Digestion of pThioHis-PPSIG plasmid with Xba I and Sac II --- p.22 / Chapter 2.3.6.2 --- Digestion of pTYB-PPSIG plasmid with EcoR V --- p.22 / Chapter 2.3.7 --- Transformation into expression E. coli strains --- p.23 / Chapter 2.4 --- Over expression of PPSIG proteins in E. coli --- p.23 / Chapter 2.5 --- Semi-purification of PPSIG fusion proteins by preparative SDS-PAGE --- p.24 / Chapter 2.6 --- Rabbit immunization --- p.25 / Chapter 2.7 --- Northern blotting analysis --- p.26 / Chapter 2.7.1 --- Probe preparation --- p.26 / Chapter 2.7.2 --- "Formaldehyde-agarose gel electrophoresis, blotting of RNA and hybridization" --- p.26 / Chapter 2.8 --- Subcellular fractionation --- p.29 / Chapter 2.9 --- Western blotting of liver microsomes --- p.31 / Chapter 2.10 --- Immunoprecipitation --- p.32 / Chapter 2.11 --- Mass spectrometry --- p.33 / Chapter 2.11.1 --- Trypsin digestion and peptide extraction --- p.33 / Chapter 2.11.2 --- Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry --- p.34 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Results --- p.36 / Chapter 3.1 --- Cloning of PPSIG into pThioHis and pTYB vectors --- p.36 / Chapter 3.1.1 --- Cloning of PPSIG into pThioHis vector --- p.36 / Chapter 3.1.2 --- Cloning of PPSIG into pTYB vector --- p.36 / Chapter 3.2 --- Protein expression of Thio-PPSIG and Intein-PPSIG --- p.41 / Chapter 3.3 --- Identification of recombinant Thio-PPSIG and Intein-PPSIG by mass spectrometry --- p.49 / Chapter 3.4 --- Preparation and characterization of Thio-PPSIG and Intein-PPSIG antisera --- p.61 / Chapter 3.5 --- Identification of native PPSIG and its induction pattern --- p.65 / Chapter 3.5.1 --- PPSIG was highly inducible upon 72-h starvation in a PPARα dependent manner --- p.65 / Chapter 3.5.2 --- "PPSIG showed slight induction upon 2-wk Wy-14,643 treatment" --- p.71 / Chapter 3.6 --- Confirmation of the specificity of PPSIG antiserum --- p.74 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- Discussion --- p.81 / References --- p.91 / Appendix A Deduced amino acid sequences of PPSIG fusion proteins --- p.99 / Chapter A1 --- Deduced amino acid sequence of Thio-PPSIG from pThioHis-PPSIG plasmid --- p.99 / Chapter A2 --- Deduced amino acid sequence of Intein-PPSIG from pTYB-PPSIG plasmid --- p.101 / Appendix B Mass spectra of trypsin digested native PPSIG --- p.104 / Chapter B1 --- Mass spectrum of trypsin digested native PPSIG immunoprecipitated from liver microsomes from PPARα wild-type mice fed with normal diet (starvation experiment) --- p.104 / Chapter B2 --- Mass spectrum of trypsin digested native PPSIG immunoprecipitated from liver microsomes from PPARα wild-type mice starved for 72 hours (starvation experiment) --- p.105 / Chapter B3 --- "Mass spectrum of trypsin digested native PPSIG immunoprecipitated from liver microsomes from PPARα wild-type mice fed with control diet (Wy-14,643 feeding experiment)" --- p.106 / Chapter B4 --- "Mass spectrum of trypsin digested native PPSIG immunoprecipitated from liver microsomes from PPARα wild-type mice fed with 0.1% (w/w) Wy-14,643 for 2 weeks (Wy-14,643 feeding experiment)" --- p.107

In conclusion, our study has demonstrated that TGZ, a synthetic PPARgamma ligand, inhibits lung cancer cells growth through cell-cycle arrest, increased cell differentiation and induction of apoptosis. In this pathway, the activation of ERK by TGZ plays a central role in promoting apoptosis, which appears to be mediated via a mitochondria-related mechanism and functions in a PPARgamma-dependent manner. The interaction between PPARgamma and ERK may create an auto-regulatory and positive feedback loop to enhance the effect of ERK whereas the activation of Akt may generate a negative regulation to control the degree of apoptosis occurred in lung cancer cells. TGZ may counteract NNK function to inhibit lung cancer cell growth in the PPARgamma-dependent manner. / Lung cancer is the world's leading cause of cancer death. Currently there is not an acceptable adjuvant or palliative treatment modalities that have been conclusively shown to prolong survival in lung cancer. Therefore, translational research to improve outcomes with this disease is critical. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma) is a member of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily of ligand-activated transcription. PPARgamma ligands have been demonstrated to inhibit growth of cancer cells. The role of the PPARgamma in cell differentiation, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis has attracted increasing attention. Our study focused on the role of PPARgamma and its ligand troglitazone (TGZ) in the cell death of human lung cancer and the interaction between PPARgamma system and 4-(N-Methyl-N-nitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), a major tobacco-specific carcinogen. / The epidemic of lung cancer is directly attributable to cigarette. However, it is still not completely known the molecular pathway of cigarette smoking in the pathogenesis of lung cancer. Among the carcinogenoic chemicals of cigarette smoking, 4-(N-Methyl-N-nitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) is the most potent, which induces lung cancer in all animal species tested. Unlike PPARgamma ligands, NNK can promote cell proliferationa and growth. It is interesting to know whether PPARgamma ligands can inhibit the growth-promoting function of NNK. To address this question, we used NCI-H23 lung cancer cells as the model to study how TGZ influenced the function of NNK. Results showed that NNK stimulated cell proliferation, induced the DNA binding activity of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), down-regulated Bad expression, and up-regulated PPARgamma protein expressions. Inhibition of NF-kappaB nuclear translocation led to the suppression of NNK-mediated Bad expression, indicating that NNK may regulate Bad expression through the activation of NF-kappaB. TGZ significantly inhibited cell proliferation induced by NNK. Though TGZ did not affect nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) activity, it up-regulated Bad expression. Taken together, TGZ can efficiently inhibit the proliferation of lung cancer cells induced by NNK via Bad- and PPARgamma- related pathways, which may not be directly relevant to the activity of NF-kappaB. / To elucidate the mechanism responsible for the effect of PPARgamma and TGZ on lung cancer cells, we further studied the PPARgamma molecular pathway in NCIH23 treated by TGZ. The result demonstrated that TGZ induced PPARgamma and ERK1/2 accumulation in the nucleus, where the co-localization of both proteins was found. It showed that the activation of ERK1/2 resulted in apoptosis via the mitochondrial pathway, reflecting by reduction of mitochondria membrane potential, change in Bcl-2 family members, release of cytochrome c into cytosol, and activation of caspase 9. Both PPARgamma siRNA and U0126, a specific inhibitor of ERK1/2, were able to block these effects of TGZ, suggesting that apoptosis induced by TGZ was PPARgamma- and ERK1/2-dependent. Inhibition of ERK1/2 by U0126 also led to a significant decrease in the level of PPARgamma, indicating that there was probably a positive cross-talk between PPARgamma and ERK 1/2 or an auto-regulatory feedback mechanism to amplify the effect of ERK1/2 on cell growth arrest and apoptosis. In addition to ERK1/2, TGZ also activated Akt. Interestingly, inhibition of ERK1/2 prevented the activation of Akt whereas suppression of Akt had no effect on ERK1/2, suggesting that Akt was not necessary for TGZ-PPARgamma-ERK pathway. However, the inhibition of Akt promoted the release of cytochrome c. Thus, the activation of Akt may have a negative effect on apoptosis induced by TGZ. Wortmannin, a PI3K inhibitor, inhibited TGZ-induced ERK1/2 and Akt activation, indicating that PI3K may function at the up-stream of ERK and Akt. In conclusion, our study has demonstrated that TGZ induced apoptosis in NCI-H23 lung cancer cells via a mitochondrial pathway and this pathway was PPARgamma-and ERK1/2-dependent. / We first investigated the effect of PPARgamma ligand TGZ on two human lung cancer cells (NCI-H23 and CRL-2066) and one human lung normal cell (CCL-202). The results showed that in consistence with the loss of cell viability, TGZ induced apoptosis in CRL-2066 and NCI-H23 cells but not in CCL-202 cells. TGZ up-regulated PPARgamma expression in all these three lung cell lines, especially in the cancer cells. In association of the time-dependent inhibition of the cell proliferation, TGZ down-regulated the expression of Bcl-w and Bcl-2 but activated ERK1/2 and p38, suggesting that the growth-inhibitory effect of TGZ is associated with the reduction of Bcl-w and Bcl-2 and the increase of ERK1/2 and p38 activation. SAPK/JNK activation assay showed a decreased activity in all these three cell lines treated by TGZ. It was also demonstrated that TGZ was able to activate PPARgamma transcriptionally. We conclude that TGZ inhibits the growth of human lung cancer cells via the induction of apoptosis, at least in part, in a PPARgamma-relevant manner. / Li Mingyue. / "June 2006." / Advisers: George Gong Chen; Anthony Ping Chuen Yim. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 67-11, Section: B, page: 6202. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 174-207). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Electronic reproduction. [Ann Arbor, MI] : ProQuest Information and Learning, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / School code: 1307.

Orientador: Káthia Maria Honório / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal do ABC. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência e Tecnologia/Química, 2013

Recently, persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were classified as “metabolic disruptors” for their suspected roles is altering metabolic and energy homeostasis through bioaccumulation in liver and adipose tissues. Among PCBs, a specific congener, 3,3',4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB126), is a potent arylhydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonist and elicits toxicity similar to the classic dioxin, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). PCB126 levels found in human blood are particularly associated with diabetes and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in humans, however the mechanisms are unclear. We hypothesized that the accumulation of PCB126 disrupts carbohydrate and lipid metabolism by altering the functions of liver and adipose tissues. Hence, our objective was to characterize PCB126 induced-metabolic disruption and the underlying molecular mechanisms that cause toxicity. Separate animal studies were performed using a rat model to understand the time- and dose-dependent effects after PCB126 administration. The chronology of PCB126 toxicity showed early decreases in serum glucose level at 9 h, worsened in a time-dependent way until the end of the study at 12 d. Lipid accumulation and the liver pathology also worsened over time between 3 d and 12 d post administration. These observed effects in the liver were also found to be dose-dependent. The decrease in serum glucose was a result of a decrease in the transcript levels of gluconeogenic and glycogenolytic enzymes, necessary for hepatic glucose production and hence the maintenance of steady glucose levels in the blood. Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK-C), the rate limiting enzyme of gluconeogenesis, was found to be significantly decreased upon exposure to PCB126. The expression levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (Pparα) and some of its targets involved in fatty acid oxidation were also found to be time and dose-dependently decreased upon exposure to PCB126. In an attempt to understand the molecular targets that may cause these dual effects on both gluconeogenic and fatty acid oxidation, we found that PCB126 significantly decreases phosphorylation of the cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB). CREB is a nuclear transcription factor that is activated in the liver through phosphorylation; to switch-on the transcription of enzymes that catalyze gluconeogenesis and fatty acid oxidation, in order to meet energy demands, especially during fasting. Further, to understand the toxicity of PCB126 on adipose tissue, a human pre-adipocyte model that can be differentiated into mature adipocytes was used. In these studies, we found that exposure of preadipocytes to PCB126 resulted in a significant reduction in their ability to differentiate into adipocytes. This results in decreased lipid accumulation in the adipocyte. Reduction in the differentiation by PCB126 was associated with down regulation in transcript levels of a key adipocyte transcription factor, PPARγ and its transcriptional targets necessary for adipogenesis and adipocyte function. These inhibitory effects of PCB126 on the regulation of PPARγ and the initiation of adipogenesis were mediated through activation of AhR. Overall, this work shows that PCB126 disrupts nutrient homeostasis through its effects on the function of target tissues; liver and adipose. PCB126 significantly alters the nutrient homeostasis through its effects on gluconeogenesis and fatty-acid oxidation necessary for glucose and energy regulation during fasting. In addition, PCB126 interrupts the storage functions of adipose tissue by inhibiting adipogenesis and thus disrupts lipid storage and distribution

La plasticité mitochondriale à l'égard de l'oxydation de substrats, et sa participation à la transition métabolique ont été étudiées dans deux conditions: l'exposition chronique à l'hypoxie et l'entraînement en endurance, connues comme modulatrices de la préférence de substrats. Ainsi l'affinité pour le palmitoyl carnitine est augmentée par l'hypoxie et la restriction calorique alors qu'au contraire le flux maximal de palmitoyl CoA (PCoA) semble freiné par l'hypoxie. Quant aux effets de l'entraînement, malgré une amélioration du temps limite de course à intensité sous-maximale et une augmentation des capacités oxydatives globales, nous ne retrouvons pas de facilitation de l'oxydation du PCoA. Par ailleurs, on observe une augmentation des messagers PPAR-delta et d'UCP-3 en réponse à une exposition aigue à l'hypoxie. Le rôle de PPAR-delta sur la modulation de l'utilisation de substrats par la mitochondrie a aussi été envisagé en utilisant un agoniste pharmacologique de PPAR-delta, le GW 742. Celui-ci, permet d'améliorer l'efficacité catalytique du complexe enzymatique CPT-1 tout en limitant l'oxydation du pyruvate, également diminuée dans les muscles oxydatifs au cours de la restriction calorique. Le traitement par GW 742, s'il limite l'altération de l'efficacité catalytique de CPT-1 observée en hypoxie, ne permet pas de rétablir, un niveau d'oxydation en PCoA similaire à celui observé en situation contrôle. Le GW 742 s'est aussi montré capable de restaurer le flux en PCoA altéré par l'entraînement, même si la fonction du transport CPT-1 reste limitante devant l'augmentation du potentiel oxydatif induit par l'entraînement. Par ailleurs, nous n'avons pas retrouvé de relation étroite entre les variations d'affinité en PCoA et la performance aérobie sous-maximale, pourtant influencée par la capacité à oxyder préférentiellement les lipides. Enfin, la diminution du flux en pyruvate associée à l'augmentation de l'utilisation des acides gras à longue chaîne observée lors du traitement par GW 742 ou au cours de la restriction calorique pose la question du rôle joué par une cible particulière de PPAR-delta sur la mitochondrie, la protéine découplante UCP-3.

CATALÀ:L'enzim carnitina palmitoïltransferasa1 (CPT1), localitzat a la membrana mitocondrial externa, constitueix el principal punt de control de l'entrada d'àcids grassos de cadena llarga (LCFA) al mitocondri i és clau en el manteniment d'àcids grassos circulants. Existeixen tres isotips descrits (CPT1A, CPT1B i CPT1C) que codifiquen per enzims amb diferents característiques cinètiques i patrons d'expressió.1.- Mecanismes de control transcripcional del gen CPT1B humà.El promotor humà de la CPT1B inclou un element de resposta a PPAR i un lloc d'unió a MEF-2. Hem investigat el paper d'aquests elements de resposta i la possible interacció entre PPARα i MEF2C en la regulació transcripcional d'aquest promotor. Dels resultats obtinguts podem concloure que la resposta del promotor a PPARα depèn: del context cel·lular, de l'element de resposta a MEF-2 i de la disposició espacial d'aquest respecte al PPRE. La combinació d'aquests elements cis en el promotor de la CPT1B indueix l'expressió màxima del gen en resposta a diferents senyals. La concurrència de senyals metabòlics i miogènics en aquest promotor genera una conformació transcripcional permissiva d'aquest promotor que porta a una activació sinèrgica del promotor en aquells teixits on es troben els corresponents factors de transcripció (MEF2C, PPARα/RXRα) i el substrat metabòlic de l'enzim, els àcids grassos que activen PPARα. En la mateixa una regió promotor una zona rica en GC capaç d'unir Sp1 ha resultat fonamental per l'expressió basal del gen i per la transactivació per PPARα però no per la de PPARδ. 2.- Relació estructura/funció de l'enzim CPT1 de porc.A nivell cinètic, les CPT1A mostren una alta afinitat per la carnitina i una baixa sensibilitat al malonil-CoA mentre que les CPT1B presenten característiques contràries. Una excepció a aquesta relació és la CPT1A de porc (PLCPT1) que es comporta com una quimera natural entre els isotips A i B, presentant afinitats pels substrats similars a les CPT1A i una IC50 pel malonil-CoA típica de les CPT1B. Utilitzant quimeres entre la CPT1A de rata i la CPT1A de porc hem demostrat que l'extrem C-terminal de les CPT1A es comporta com un únic domini que dicta la sensibilitat total a malonil-CoA de l'enzim. El grau de sensibilitat a l'inhibidor ve determinat per l'estructura adoptada per aquest domini. Utilitzant mutants delecionats hem mostrat que la sensibilitat a malonil-CoA també depèn de la interacció d'aquest únic domini carboxil amb els primers 18 aminoàcids de la proteïna. D'aquests resultats podem concloure que les CPt1A de rata i porc presenten diferent sensibilitats a malonil-CoA perquè els primers 18 aminoàcids dels enzims interaccionen diferent amb el domini C-terminal.Hem aïllat l'isotip muscular de la CPT1 de porc (PMCPT1), una proteïna de 772 aminoàcids molt similar a les CPT1B. Expressada en Pichia pastoris la CPt1B de porc ha resultat ser un enzim amb característiques cinètiques pròximes a les CPT1A. 3.- Efecte de C75 sobre el sistema CPT. Els enzims CPT1 i CPT2 són components del sistema llançadora CPT. Aquest sistema es troba finament regulat pels nivells de malonil-CoA, un inhibidor reversible de la CPT1. Per la seva capacitat d'inhibir la sintasa d'àcids grassos (FAS), el C75 és capaç d'incrementar els nivells intracel·lular de malonil-CoA intracel·lular. Paradoxalment també activa l'oxidació d'àcids grassos de cadena llarga. Per tal d'identificar la diana exacta del C75 en el sistema CPT vam analitzar l'activitat enzimàtica de CPT1A, CPT1B i CPT2 davant el tractament amb C75. Els resultats d'aquests experiments indiquen que el C75 actua sobre el sistema CPT activant CPT1A, CPT1B i CPT2 de manera independent de malonil-CoA. / The outer mitochondrial membrane enzyme carnitine palmitoyltransferase1 (CPTI) catalyzes the initial and regulatory step in the β-oxidation of long-chain fatty acids. There are three characterized isotypes: CPT1A, CPT1B and CPT1C. The human CPT1B promoter includes a functional PPAR responsive element and a myocite-specific site that binds MEF2C. We investigated the roles of these sites and the potential interaction between PPARα and MEF2C regulating this promoter. The combination of cis elements in the promoter of the CPT1B maximally induces the expression of this gene in response to a combination of signals. The concurrence of myogenic and metabolic signals generates a transcriptionally permissive conformation of the promoter that gives rise to a synergistic transcription of the gene in tissues containing the corresponding transcription factors and fatty acids that activate PPARα.Kinetic hallmarks of the CPT1A are high affinity for carnitine and low sensitivity to malonyl-CoA inhibition, while the opposite characteristics are intrinsic to the CPT1B isotype. Pig and rat CPT1A share common Km values for their substrates but differ in their sensitivity to malonyl-CoA inhibition. Using chimeras between rat CPT1A and pig CPT1A, we show that the C-terminal region behaves as a single domain, which dictates the overall malonyl-CoA sensitivity of this enzyme. Using deletion mutation analysis, we show that malonyl-CoA sensitivity also depends on the interaction of this single domain with the first 18 N-terminal amino acid residues. Pig and rat CPT1A have different malonyl-CoA sensitivity, because the first 18 N-terminal amino acids interact differently with the C-terminal domain. Pig CPT1B is a protein of 772 amino acids that shares extensive sequence identity with CPT1B. Expressed in Pichia pastoris, pig CPT1B shows kinetic characteristics similar to those of the CPT1A isotype. CPT1 and CPT2 enzymes are components of the CPT shuttle system. This system is tightly regulated by malonyl-CoA. Because of its ability to inhibit fatty acid synthase, C75 is able to increase malonyl-CoA intracellular levels. Paradoxically it also activates β-oxidation. To identify the exact target of C75 within the CPT system, we expressed CPT1 and CPT2 in Pichia pastoris. We show that C75 acts on recombinant CPT1A, CPT1B and CPT2.

La Diabetis Mellitus tipus 2 (DM2) és una malaltia metabòlica complexa que afecta entre un 4 i un 5% de la població en les societats industrialitzades. Aquesta patologia es caracteritza per la presència, en la seva fase inicial, de resistència a la insulina (RI). Freqüentment, una de les primeres alteracions que s´observen en els individus amb predisposició a patir RI/DM2 és l´acumulació de grassa intraabdominal. De fet, la relació epidemiològica entre l´obesitat i la RI és molt sòlida. A més, en l´última dècada nombroses evidències han posat de manifest l´existència d´una estreta relació entre un estat d´inflamació crònic de baixa intensitat i la presència d´obesitat-RI-DM2. De tota manera, tot i que el vincle entre l´increment d´àcids grassos lliures en plasma i la diabetis està ben acceptat, els mecanismes implicats en l´aparició de RI i DM2 induïdes per aquests àcids grassos no són ben coneguts. Per aquest motiu, l´objectiu d´aquesta tesi doctoral ha estat aprofundir en els mecanismes implicats en l´aparició de RI induïda per l´àcid gras saturat palmitat i estudiar la funció de l´enzim COX-2 en aquestes condicions, així com també determinar la capacitat de l´àcid gras monoinsaturat oleat i de l´agonista PPARdelta GW501516 per a prevenir la inflamació i la RI induïdes pel palmitat en miotubs de ratolí C2C12.Els estudis realitzats indiquen que la presència elevada de l´àcid gras saturat palmitat provoca una disminució de PGC-1alfa(coactivador que controla l´expressió de gens mitocondrials) a través de l´activació de la via ERK-MAPK-NF-kB, així com també l´acumulació de diacilglicerol intramiocel·lular, fent que apareguin estats d´inflamació i RI. A més, s´ha observat que un augment agut de determinats marcadors inflamatoris, com la COX-2, contribueixen a resoldre aquest procés inflamatori generat per l´acumulació de lípids, tot i que la seva presència de manera crònica accentua l´estat inflamatori. Segons hem pogut constatar amb el nostre model in vitro de RI, l´àcid gras monoinsaturat oleat i el GW501516 podrien ser dues noves possibilitats terapèutiques per evitar la inflamació induïda per àcids grassos i millorar la sensibilitat a la insulina, ja que tenen la capacitat d´incrementar la beta-oxidació mitocondrial impedint així que s´acumulin metabolits lipotòxics com el diacilglicerol. / Insulin resistance (IR) is a major characteristic of type 2 diabetes mellitus and is also associated with obesity. Impairment of glucose utilization and insulin sensitivity has been related to the presence of high free fatty acids in plasma and a low-grade chronic systemic inflammation. However, the mechanisms by which free fatty results in inflammation and IR are not well understood. After exposing C2C12 cells (mouse myotubes) to the saturated fatty acid palmitate, we observed, on the one hand, a reduction in PGC-1-alpha gene expression through the activation of ERK-MAPK-NF-kB pathway, and on the other hand, an increase in diacylglycerol accumulation. Moreover, we observed that the presence of palmitate increased COX-2 expression, which seems to contribute to resolve the acute, but not chronic, inflammation. Our in vitro model of IR also showed that the monounsaturated fatty acid oleate and the PPAR-delta agonist GW501516, could avoid the development of inflammation and IR induced by fatty acids through an increase in mitochondrial beta-oxidation, thus preventing the accumulation of lipotoxic metabolites, such as dicylglycerol.

Background: The typical western diet contains foods with modest amounts of lipid oxidation products. Previous work by us and others have demonstrated that mildly oxidized lipids promote a gain in fat mass while highly oxidized lipids decrease fat mass in rodents and triglyceride (TAG) accumulation in 3T3-L1 cells. Adipocyte differentiation is regulated by a key nuclear transcription factor known as PPARγ. Objective: To investigate if the alterations in triglyceride accumulation in 3T3-L1 cells pretreated with oxidized soy oil are due to 1) a change in PPARg DNA interactions 2) changes in the expression of SREBP-1c, PPARg, and/or its target genes. Main Methods: Confluent 3T3-L1 cells were pretreated for 24hours with 0.01% soy oil (SO) which was either unheated (unheated SO) or heated for 3, (3h-SO), 6 (6h-SO), or 9hours (9h-SO). The effect of 24hour soy oil exposure was assessed at several time points throughout the differentiation process. Alterations in PPARg DNA interaction was assessed using a PPARγ transcription factor assay kit while alterations in the expression of genes upstream and downstream of PPARγ was determined by RT-PCR. Primary and secondary products of oxidation within the SO were determined by spectrophotometry. Results: The 6hr-SO contained the greatest concentration of peroxides whereas both the 6hr-SO and 9hr-SO contained a significantly higher concentration of conjugated dienes and aldehydes.Nuclear extracts from 3T3-L1 cells pretreated with 6h-SO demonstrated the greatest reduction in PPARγ DNA binding. Compared to the unheated SO and mildly oxidized 3h-SO, cells treated with the 6h-SO had a significant reduction in SREBP-1c, PPARg, LPL, and GLUT4 expression occurring early in the differentiation process. Variations in the gene expression of 6hr-SO pretreated cells persisted within partially differentiated and mature adipocytes. Conclusions: Pre-treatment of preadipocytes with soy oil heated for ³ 6h greatly decreases the activity of PPARγ in the nucleus and adipogenic gene expression . These changes seen in early differentiation seem to correlate the best with the phenotype of reduced triglyceride accumulation seen in mature adipocytes.