Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS) is a controlled disease in South Africa. This disease is caused by an Arterivirus and occurs commonly in Europe (European serotype) and in the United States of America (American serotype); therefore PRRS is not a trade sensitive disease. However, the disease has severe economic implications for the producer and the local pork industry and the decision was made by the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry in association with the South African Pork Producers’ Organization (SAPPO) to eradicate the disease when the first outbreak occurred in 2004 in the Western Cape. Severe disease leading to acute mortalities and almost 100% mortality and morbidity rate in a few pig units in the Jacobsdal area (Kuilsrivier district) in the Cape Town peninsula, alarmed local veterinary consultants during the autumn of 2004. A first diagnosis of Salmonella choleraesuis was confirmed at the Provincial Veterinary Laboratory in Stellenbosch. Antibiotic treatment did not resolve the clinical picture. Sows still aborted and died and young pigs still died from acute respiratory distress. The syndrome was similar to “blue ear disease” because of severe cyanosis visible on the extremities of affected pigs. The first suspected diagnosis of Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome virus (PRRSV) was made on post mortem examination on 10 June 2004 and was confirmed on 17 June 2004 with positive ELISA (Idexx Herdchek PRRSV Ab test kit 2XR) results. A stamping out procedure immediately followed through slaughtering of all affected pigs showing clinical signs of PRRSV infection. Pigs in close proximity with possible contact and infection risk were also slaughtered. The movement of pigs was only allowed under Red Cross permit and all pig auctions were stopped. A local and countrywide serological survey was implemented immediately. The results of this survey luckily showed that the outbreak was limited to a few districts in the Western Cape. The probable source of infection is suspected to be uncooked swill originating from the Cape Town Harbour or the Cape Town International Airport, which was fed to pigs. The PRRSV responsible for the outbreak was confirmed on 5 July 2004 as the American serotype by RT-PCR test done at Lelystad, Netherlands. The National Department of Agriculture (NDA)* agreed to compensate pig owners for slaughtered pigs. This decision was further made possible by funding from SAPPO to protect the rest of the commercial pig herd in South Africa to ensure food safety and security. A total of 32 pig units were affected by PRRS of which only one was a commercial unit. All affected pigs were slaughtered by the end of August 2004. Units were cleaned and disinfected by the staffs of the Boland and Swartland State veterinary departments with approved disinfectants which is effective against PRRSV. Cleaned units had to stay empty of pigs for at least 8 weeks after disinfection was completed. Restocking was only allowed from known PRRS-free pig suppliers and regular monitoring was implemented of all previously infected sites and units in high risk areas. On-going serological monitoring revealed no more positive cases since May 2005. It seems that the stamping out procedure and a temporary ban on movement and auctions of live pigs played a primary role in eradication of the PRRSV outbreak in South Africa in 2004. * The name of the NDA has been changed to the National Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) in 2009, but because the NDA was the applicable name when the PRRS outbreak occurred, NDA will be used in this document. / Dissertation (MMedVet)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

Since emerging in Europe and the US, PRRS has spread globally and become the most significant infectious disease currently devastating the swine industry. In the US alone, the economic losses caused by this disease amount to more than 560 million US dollars every year. Modified-live PRRSV vaccines (MLV) are the most effective option currently available for the control of the disease. MLVs can confer solid protection against homologous re-infection and have significant effects in reducing viral shedding. But the vaccine efficacy varies upon heterologous challenge. None of the current vaccines are able to completely prevent respiratory infection, transplacental transmission, as well as pig-to-pig transmission of the virus. More importantly, the intrinsic risk of MLV vaccine to revert to virulent virus under farm conditions poses a great safety concern. The unsatisfactory efficacy and safety of current PRRSV vaccines drives the continuous efforts of developing a new generation of vaccines. The strategy we focus on for novel PRRSV vaccine development is subunit vaccine. The reasons for choosing this strategy are: 1) subunit vaccines only contain the immunogenic fragments of a pathogen. Administration of such pathogen fragments eliminates the risk of pathogens reverting back to their virulent form as in the case of modified live vaccines. 2) Subunit vaccines have advantages in terms of vaccine production since a well-defined pathogen fragment can more easily be produced consistently. To achieve of our goal of developing safe and efficacious subunit vaccines against PRRSV, three projects were completed. First, a scalable process for purification of PRRSV particles from cell culture was developed. This process produced purified viral particles for ELISA and cell-based assays used in vaccine development. Second, a plant-made oral subunit vaccine against PRRSV was developed. Administration of the plant-made vaccine, the vaccinated animals produced virus-specific serum and intestine mucosal antibodies with neutralization activity, as well as cellular immune responses with a preference of virus-specific IFN-γ production. Since neutralization antibodies and virus-specific IFN-γ response are the crucial factors contributing to protection against PRRSV infection, the plant-made oral subunit vaccine strategy is an attractive strategy for developing a new generation of the vaccine to control PRRS disease. Third, a chimeric protein consisting of the ectodomains of viral M and GP5 proteins was expressed and purified. The protein product showed a single band on a silver-stained gel and contained an endotoxin level of less than 10 EU/mg protein. In addition, the purified protein showed expected bioactivities. It was antigenic, could bind to a cellular receptor for the virus (heparan sulfate), and could block virus infection of susceptible cells. Therefore, the chimeric protein is a promising subunit vaccine candidate against PRRSV. / Ph. D.

Les ß-glucanes (BG) sont les polysaccharides les plus abondants de la paroi de Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Depuis des millénaires, ils sont utilisés pour leurs propriétés immunostimulantes et leurs potentiels thérapeutiques. L'objectif de ce travail était de caractériser la réponse immunitaire induite par les BG et de comprendre leurs modes d'action sur les macrophages murins en contexte infectieux. Nous avons montré que (i) les extraits de paroi enrichis en BG n'induisent qu'une faible production de cytokines par les macrophages contrairement aux extraits bruts, (ii) la réponse inflammatoire médiée par les extraits bruts résulte de la signalisation des TLRs et non de Dectin-1 et (iii) les BG stimulent la synthèse tardive de GM-CSF via Dectin-1. En conditions infectieuses, les BG enrichis confèrent une forte signature inflammatoire aux macrophages prétraités conduisant à l'amplification de la production cytokinique, à la synthèse de ROS et l'optimisation de la clairance bactérienne. En conclusion, cette étude souligne les enjeux de l'utilisation des BG enrichis comme adjuvants dans l'amélioration de la résistance des individus aux infections. / ß-glucans (BG) are the most abundant polysaccharides of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell wall. For decades, they have been extensively used because of their immuno-modulatory properties and their potential therapeutic effects. The aim of this study was to characterize the immune response induced by BG and to understand their mechanisms of action on murine macrophages occurring upon bacterial infections. We demonstrated that (i) BG-enriched extracts trigger low amounts of cytokine production in contrast with crude products, (ii) the immune response mediated by crude extracts results from TLRs and not from Dectin-1 signaling and (iii) BG-enriched compounds stimulate the late and strong induction of GM-CSF in a Dectin-1-dependent manner. Upon bacteria exposure, BG-enriched extracts confer a strong inflammatory to pretreated macrophages leading to synergistic increase of cytokine release, ROS production and better clearance of pathogens. Altogether, our findings emphasize the relevancy of using BG-enriched extracts for the design of novel adjuvant formulations contributing to individuals' resistance to infections.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology / Raymond R. R. Rowland / Mechanisms for mutations in RNA viruses include random point mutations, insertions, deletions, recombination and re-assortment. Most viruses have more than one of these mechanisms operating during their life cycle. Impact of sequence divergence is seen in the areas of evolution, epidemiology and ecology of these viruses. Immediate negative consequences of genetic diversity include failure of vaccination, resistance to anti-virals, emergence and re-emergence of novel virus isolates with increased virulence or altered tropism. To identify specific sequence features that influence recombination, a new in-vitro system was developed using an infectious cDNA clone of PRRS virus that expressed fluorescent proteins. The in-vitro experimental system involved the co-transfection of a pair of closely related PRRSV infectious clones: a fully functional non-fluorescent PRRS virus infectious clone that possessed a single mutation in a green fluorescent protein (GFP) and a second infectious clone that contained a defective fluorescent virus. The readout for successful recombination was appearance of a fully functional fluorescent virus. The model system creates the opportunity to study several aspects of recombination, including the requirement for sequence homology between viruses undergoing recombination.

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Background: In this study, six enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), intended for routine porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) herd monitoring, are tested for their ability to detect PRRSV specific antibodies in the serum of pigs after vaccination with an inactivated PRRSV type 1 vaccine and subsequent infection with a highly pathogenic (HP) PRRSV field strain. For this reason, ten piglets (group V) from a PRRSV negative herd were vaccinated twice at the age of 2 and 4 weeks with an inactivated PRRSV vaccine. Ten additional piglets (group N) from the sameherd remained unvaccinated. Three weeks after second vaccination, each of the piglets received an intradermal application of an HP PRRSV field strain. Serum samples were taken before first vaccination as well as before and 3, 7, 10 and 14 days after HP PRRSV application. All serum samples were tested for PRRSV RNA by reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) as well as for PRRSV antibodies with all six study ELISAs. Results: At the beginning of the study (before vaccination), all of the piglets were PRRSV antibody negative with all study ELISAs. They also tested negative for PRRSV RNA measured by RT-qPCR. From day 3 after HP PRRSV application until the end of the study, a viremia was detected by RT-qPCR in all of the piglets. On day 0 (day of HP PRRSV application), nine out of ten piglets of the pre-vaccinated group tested PRRSV antibody positive with one of the tested ELISAs, although with lower S/P values than after infection. On day 10 after HP PRRSV application, all study ELISAs except one had significantly higher S/P or OD values, respectively more positive samples, in group V than in group N. Conclusions: Only one of the tested ELISAs was able to detect reliably PRRSV antibodies in pigs vaccinated with an inactivated PRRSV vaccine. With most of the tested ELISAs, higher S/P values respectively more positive samples after PRRSV infection were seen in the pre-vaccinated group than in the non-vaccinated.

Le virus du syndrome reproducteur et respiratoire porcin (SRRP) est actuellement l’une des principales menaces pour la santé des troupeaux porcins. Les multiples voies de transmission complexifient l’épidémiologie de l’infection et en font une maladie particulièrement difficile à contrôler. L’objectif général de ce projet de recherche était de déterminer les facteurs associés au statut SRRP des sites de production afin de mieux comprendre l’épidémiologie de cette maladie au sein de deux régions du Québec ayant des densités porcines différentes. Les stratégies d’introduction des cochettes de remplacement ont d’abord été examinées. Des lacunes importantes ont été identifiées représentant un risque potentiel pour l’introduction du virus ou pour la recirculation d’une souche endémique au sein d’un troupeau reproducteur. Ainsi, appliquée à titre de stratégie de contrôle, l’acclimatation s’est révélée particulièrement problématique. Les principes de base étaient peu respectés, pouvant donc avoir un impact négatif considérable sur la circulation virale au sein du troupeau et potentiellement sur le voisinage immédiat. La fréquence de plusieurs mesures de biosécurité externe a ensuite été évaluée, permettant d’identifier certains problèmes dont ceux touchant principalement les mesures d’hygiène relatives au protocole d’entrée. Des différences de fréquence entre les régions et les types de production ont également été notées, ce qui peut orienter les interventions de rehaussement. Une classification multivariée a permis de grouper les sites en différents patrons de biosécurité pour constituer par le fait même un index de biosécurité. Cette étape a permis d’évaluer l’association entre certaines caractéristiques de l’élevage et le niveau de biosécurité indiqué par l’index. La distribution géographique des patrons au sein des deux régions, couplée à la détection d’agrégats spatiaux de sites ayant un patron similaire, a également permis de cibler davantage les interventions en fonction de la localisation des sites. Suite à l’investigation du statut SRRP des sites, une prévalence apparente très élevée a été obtenue pour les deux régions, complexifiant le contrôle de la maladie. L’étude de facteurs de risque dans la région de densité modérée a mis en évidence quatre facteurs associés au statut SRRP positif des sites, soit un inventaire important, la proximité du site porcin immédiat, l’absence de douche ainsi que le libre accès au site par l’équarrisseur. Une action préventive intégrant des mesures de biosécurité spécifiques peut donc être entreprise directement à la ferme au regard des deux derniers facteurs. Le fait d’utiliser un index de biosécurité plutôt que des mesures de biosécurité spécifiques a également été évalué. Les résultats ne supportent pas l’index global dans l’évaluation de l’association entre la biosécurité et le statut SRRP des sites de production. Finalement, la corrélation entre les distances génétique, euclidienne et temporelle des souches de SRRP, considérant également l’appartenance au même ou à des propriétaires différents, a été évaluée au sein de la région de haute densité. Une corrélation positive entre la distance génétique et euclidienne observée jusqu’à 5 km a souligné l’importance de la propagation régionale impliquant les aérosols, les insectes, d’autres espèces animales ou les objets inanimés. De plus, les souches génétiquement similaires appartenaient davantage à des sites ayant le même propriétaire, ce qui sous-tend des mécanismes de transmission impliquant une source commune d’animaux, d’employés, d’équipement, voire de véhicules. / The economic impact of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) on swine industry compelled us to improve our knowledge on the epidemiology of the disease in a perspective of prevention. On-farm and regional management of the disease is complex due to the numerous pathways of transmission of the virus. The main objective of this project was to determine factors associated with PRRS status of production sites in two areas of different swine density in Quebec to improve our knowledge on the epidemiology of PRRS. Gilt replacement strategies were first investigated and practices potentially at risk for PRRSV introduction or recirculation into the sow herd were identified. Acclimatization, which is reported to be an effective strategy to control PRRSV within a herd, was the most common but was the worst applied strategy in the participating herds. Basic principles were not respected which could enhance PRRSV circulation into the sow herd and potentially in the neighbourhood. The frequency of different biosecurity practices was also examined and led to the identification of some shortcomings, mainly related to the entrance protocol for people; these should be addressed at the farm level before implementing any PRRS regional control. Differences of frequency were observed between regions and production types, thus using this information could help targeting future intervention of biosecurity enhancement. A biosecurity index was developed by grouping sites in different biosecurity patterns using a multivariable technique of classification. This allowed the identification of associations between biosecurity index and characteristic of sites. The geographical distribution of biosecurity patterns among each region combined with the detection of cluster of sites having similar pattern would help to target intervention based on site location. PRRS status of sites was determined and a high apparent prevalences of infected sites were obtained in both regions which will complicate PRRS management. In the moderate density area, four variables were associated with PRRS positive status: high inventory, proximity to the closest pig site, absence of shower and free access to the site by rendering trucks. Whereas the first two factors are non modifiable characteristics of site, the other ones can be directly managed on the site by biosecurity. The impact of using a biosecurity index instead of specific biosecurity variables was also evaluated. Results do not support the use of a global index to assess association between biosecurity and PRRS status. Finally, the correlation among genetic, Euclidean and temporal distances and ownership of PRRSV strains was assessed in the high density area. Positive correlation between genetic distance and ownership suggests either common sources of animals or semen, employees, technical services or vehicles. A positive correlation was also obtained between genetic and Euclidean distances up to 5 km, suggesting the importance of mechanisms involved in area spread such as aerosols, insects, others animal species or fomites.

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