Peptidoglycan not only protects bacterial cells against intracellular pressure but also provides the cells with a defined morphology. Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) catalyze the polymerization of the peptidoglycan in Bacillus subtilis. PBP2a and PBP2b are class B PBPs which have been known to have transpeptidase activities and they localize at different positions on the cell membrane. PBP2a spreads around the cylindrical wall as well as some at the septum, and PPB2b localizes exclusively to the septum and some at the cell poles. Both PBP2a and PBP2b are composed of four domains: S, N, P, and C domains from the N- to C- terminus. A FLAG epitope was tagged to the C-terminal ends of PBP2a and PBP2b. Cells with FLAG tagged PBP2a or PBP2b grow as well as wild type strain. Expression of PBP2a-FLAG and PBP2b-FLAG can be detected by western blotting using anti FLAG antibody. The expression of wild type PBP2a/PBP2b in these strains was tightly controlled by a xylose promoter. The FLAG fusion didn't influence the normal membrane localizations of PBP2a or PBP2b. PBP2a/2b mutant strains with the S and/or N domains switched between PBP2a and PBP2b were constructed. All these domain-switch proteins were tagged with a FLAG at the C-terminus. The expression of these recombinant proteins can be detected by western blotting. None of these domain-switch proteins was able to complement the wild type PBP2a and PBP2b and cells with only these recombinant proteins but no wild type proteins were non-viable. Cellular localization of these domain switch proteins were visualized using immunofluorescence microscopy. Proteins containing the PBP2a S domain had the same localization patterns as wild type PBP2a. Proteins that have the PBP2b S domain localized specifically at the septum and cell poles, which is similar to the wild type PBP2b. These results indicate that the S domain is the determinant to direct PBP2a and PBP2b to their cellular destinations. / Master of Science

The penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) synthesize and modify peptidoglycan (PG), the main structural element of the bacterial cell wall. PBPs and PG synthesis are highly conserved in all bacteria and both have been important targets for antibiotic and antibacterial development. In the Gram positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis, PBP1 is composed of the four domains S, N, P, and C in order from the N- to C-terminus. It plays important roles in vegetative PG synthesis. Compared to the wild type B. subtilis, the PBP1 null mutant has decreased growth rate, cell diameter, and PG crosslinking; the cell population has more long cells; and the colonies have raised and smooth edges. In this work, we constructed six mutant forms of PBP1 that were tagged with a C-terminal FLAG epitope, to complement the wild type gene. We examined the colony and cell morphologies, and PBP1 localization in the mutant strains. The removal of the cytoplasmic region of the PBP1 S domain and the replacement of PBP1 S domain by PBP4 S domain did not change the colony morphologies, and each of these two mutations had minor effects on growth rate, cell diameter, PG crosslinking and generation of long cells in the cell population. The single point mutation in the active site of the N or P domain presumably removed the enzymatic activity, and each mutation caused slower growth rate, decreased cell diameter and PG crosslinking. The point mutation in the P domain had a minor effect on the colony morphology and formation of long cells; while the mutation in the N domain altered the colony morphology, and resulted in high percentage of long cells that is comparable to the PBP1 null mutant. The C domain of PBP1 has no apparent enzymatic activity, but the loss of it altered the colony morphology, and caused slower growth rate, decreased cell diameter, and PG crosslinking. In the wild type B. subtilis, PBP1 localizes to the septum. This septum localization specificity was lost in strains expressing PBP1 without the C domain, with PBP4 S domain, or with a point mutation in the active site of the N domain. PBP1 with a point mutation in the active site of the P domain, or without the cytoplasmic region of the S domain, had decreased septum localization specificity. These findings were used to develop a model of how PBP1 domain functioning in B. subtilis. / Master of Science

L'objectif de ma thèse était de réaliser une étude de la synthèse de la paroi de Streptococcus pneumoniae, paroi qui participe à la croissance et la division bactérienne et fait intervenir les « Penicillin-Binding Proteins » (PBPs). J'ai étudié la localisation du répertoire complet des six PBPs au cours du cycle cellulaire de S. pneumoniae, ce qui a révélé des similitudes inattendues entre les mécanismes de division des bactéries de type bacille et coque. J'ai déterminé le rôle spécifique de chaque PBP dans la synthèse de la paroi et mis en valeur la contribution de PBP3, une D,D-carboxypeptidase, dans la régulation de la division bactérienne. J'ai par ailleurs déterminé la structure tridimensionnelle de PBP3 à 2.8 Å de résolution, ce qui m'a permis de contraindre les modèles de synthèse de la paroi chez le pneumocoque.

The emergence of extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) producing Enterobacteriaceae worldwide has led to an increased use of carbapenems and may drive the development of carbapenem resistance. Existing mechanisms are mainly due to acquired carbapenemases or the combination of ESBL-production and reduced outer membrane permeability. The focus of this thesis was to study the development of carbapenem resistance in Escherichia coli in the presence and absence of acquired β-lactamases. To this end we used the resistance plasmid pUUH239.2 that caused the first major outbreak of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in Scandinavia. Spontaneous carbapenem resistance was strongly favoured by the presence of the ESBL-encoding plasmid and different mutational spectra and resistance levels arose for different carbapenems. Mainly, loss of function mutations in the regulators of porin expression caused reduced influx of antibiotic into the cell and in combination with amplification of β-lactamase genes on the plasmid this led to high resistance levels. We further used a pharmacokinetic model, mimicking antibiotic concentrations found in patients during treatment, to test whether ertapenem resistant populations could be selected even at these concentrations. We found that resistant mutants only arose for the ESBL-producing strain and that an increased dosage of ertapenem could not prevent selection of these resistant subpopulations. In another study we saw that carbapenem resistance can even develop in the absence of ESBL-production. We found mutants in export pumps and the antibiotic targets to give high level resistance albeit with high fitness costs in the absence of antibiotics. In the last study, we used selective amplification of β-lactamases on the pUUH239.2 plasmid by carbapenems to determine the cost and stability of gene amplifications. Using mathematical modelling we determined the likelihood of evolution of new gene functions in this region. The high cost and instability of the amplified state makes de novo evolution very improbable, but constant selection of the amplified state may balance these factors until rare mutations can establish a new function. In my studies I observed the influence of β-lactamases on carbapenem resistance and saw that amplification of these genes would further contribute to resistance. The rapid disappearance of amplified arrays of resistance genes in the absence of antibiotic selection may lead to the underestimation of gene amplification as clinical resistance mechanism. Amplification of β-lactamase genes is an important stepping-stone and might lead to the evolution of new resistance genes.

No description available.

The survival of all organisms depends on their ability to perform certain enzymatic activities and the ability to construct certain structures. In prokaryotes, enzymes are required for the final reactions of peptidoglycan (PG) synthesis, the structural element of the bacterial cell wall. These proteins, known as penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), are identified through the presence of conserved motifs within their functional domains. The Class A high-molecular weight PBPs are bifunctional, performing the penicillin-sensitive transpeptidase activity and the glycosyl transferase (GT) activity required for the polymerization of the glycan strands. The Class A PBPs in Bacillus subtilis are PBP1, PBP4, PBP2c, and PBP2d (YwheE) and they are encoded by ponA, pbpD, pbpF, and pbpG (ywhE), respectively. These proteins appear to be somewhat functionally redundant because removal of one or more does not cause any noticeable change in phenotype. However, the loss of PBP1 has previously been demonstrated in B. subtilis to cause a decreased growth rate and changes in morphology of vegetative cells, both of which are increased upon the additional loss of PBP4. Furthermore, the loss of sporulation-expressed Class A PBPs, PBP2c and 2d, causes a 10,000-fold decrease in the production of heat resistant spores. This double mutant is shown to have changes in the structural parameters of cortex PG that appear minor when compared to other strains, but are coupled with a large defect on the deposition of cortex PG, apparently from the synthesis of an abnormal germ cell wall. The Class A PBPs are believed to be the only proteins capable of performing the GT activity and it is therefore believed that cell viability requires the presence of at least one functional Class A PBP. This requirement has been demonstrated in other organisms, but a B. subtilis strain lacking all Class A PBPs is viable. The phenotypical changes seen in the PBP1 mutant are exacerbated in this strain. The GT activity remaining in this strain is sensitive to the antibiotic moenomycin in vitro whereas it appears resistant in vivo. Identification of the protein(s) performing this novel GT activity will rely on the demonstration of the GT activity in vitro. / Ph. D.

Les Penicillin-Binding Proteins (PBP) sont des enzymes intervenant dans les étapes finales de la synthèse de la paroi bactérienne et sont les cibles des antibiotiques de la famille des β-lactamines. Dans les souches cliniques de Streptococcus pneumoniae résistantes aux β-lactamines, les PBPs ont de nombreuses mutations qui ont pour effet une diminution d'affinité de ces enzymes pour les antibiotiques. Il y a en moyenne 40 substitutions dans le domaine transpeptidase des deux acteurs majeurs de la résistance PBP2x et PBP1a.<br />Des études précédentes ont décrit le rôle de quatre mutations de PBP2x et de trois de PBP1a, mais celles-ci ne sont responsables que d'une partie de la résistance. Il n'y a très probablement qu'un nombre restreint de mutations responsables de la perte d'affinité des PBPs pour les β-lactamines ayant pour conséquence une augmentation du niveau de résistance.<br />Pour identifier toutes les mutations impliquées, une série de protocoles automatisés permettant de faire de la mutagénèse dirigée, de l'expression, de la purification et de la caractérisation fonctionnelle d'enzymes en utilisant des robots de types manipulateurs de liquides ont été développés. L'application de cette méthode nous a permis de réaliser une caractérisation exhaustive de plus de 40 mutations de PBP2x de la souche clinique<br />résistante 5204. Cette étude a abouti à l'identification de toutes les substitutions clés ainsi qu'à l'élucidation d'un nouveau mécanisme moléculaire de baisse d'affinité de PBP2x pour les β-lactamines. De plus, une étude fonctionnelle et phénotypique de la résistance impliquant PBP1a a été réalisée.<br />Ce travail apporte une vue globale des mécanismes moléculaires de la résistance de S. pneumoniae aux β-<br />lactamines impliquant les PBPs en utilisant une méthode exhaustive originale.

To fortify their cytoplasmic membrane and protect it from osmotic rupture, most bacteria surround themselves with a peptidoglycan (PG) exoskeleton. The PG synthases that build this structure are called penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs). Since they are the targets of penicillin and related antibiotics, the structures and in vitro biochemical functions of the PBPs have been extensively studied. However, the in vivo functions of the PBPs and the factors they work with to build the PG meshwork remain poorly understood. PBPs work in the context of multicomponent complexes organized by cytoskeletal elements. A major outstanding question has been whether or not these complexes contain factors required for PBP function. I addressed this using Escherichia coli as a model system by taking advantage of the synthetic lethal phenotype resulting from simultaneous inactivation of the major PG synthases: PBP1a and PBP1b. Using a screen for mutants synthetically lethal with the inactivation of PBP1b, I identified LpoA as a factor required for PBP1a function. A colleague in the lab performed the analogous screen for mutants synthetically lethal with the inactivation of PBP1a and identified LpoB as a factor required for PBP1b function. We showed that the Lpo factors are outer membrane lipoproteins that form specific trans-envelope complexes with their cognate PBPs in the inner membrane and that LpoB can stimulate the activity of PBP1b in vitro. Our results reveal unexpected complexity in the control of PBP activity and indicate that they likely receive regulatory input from the outer membrane in addition to cytoskeletal elements in the cytoplasm. To investigate the role of LpoB in morphogenesis further, I took a genetic approach that has identified PBP1b* variants capable of functioning in vivo in the absence of LpoB. Preliminary characterization of these variants indicates that LpoB has cellular functions in addition to PBP1b activation and that LpoB may be important for coordinating the two different catalytic activities of PBP1b. Future study of these mutants is likely to uncover important insights into PBP function and their control by the Lpo factors. These insights may open new avenues for the development of novel therapeutics that target the PBPs.

Structure based drug design is a rapidly advancing discipline that examines how protein targets structurally interact with small molecules, or known inhibitors, and then uses this information to lead inhibitor optimization efforts. In the case of novel inhibitors, protein structural information is first obtained via X-ray crystallography, NMR studies, or a combination of both approaches. Then, computational molecular docking is often used to screen, in silico, millions of small molecules and calculate the potential interactions they may have with the target protein’s binding pocket, in hopes of identifying novel low affinity inhibitors. By examining the interactions these small, low affinity, inhibitors have with the binding pocket, optimization efforts can be focused on maximizing interactions with “hot spots” within the pocket, thus leading to larger, high affinity inhibitors. A similar optimization technique can also be applied to known inhibitors. By examining the interactions of a known inhibitor with the binding site, new compounds can be designed to target “hot spots” in the binding pocket using the known inhibitors core structure as a starting point. The affinity of the newly designed compounds can then be compared to the affinity of the original inhibitor, and further rounds of optimization can be carried out. While simple in design, there are many challenges associated with structure based drug design studies, and there is no guarantee novel inhibitors will be found, but ultimately, it is an extremely powerful methodology that results in a much higher hit rate than other, similar, techniques. The work herein describes the use of structure based drug design to target several different proteins involved in bacterial antibiotic resistance, and a protein that has been implicated in the development of Alzheimer’s disease. The goal of the first project was to design a new PBP inhibitor based upon an existing scaffold, and to better understand the binding mechanism and molecular interactions between penicillin binding proteins and their inhibitors. PBPs are a group of proteins that catalyze the last steps of bacterial cell wall formation, and are the targets of the β-lactam antibiotics. Two compounds were designed which conjugated a ferrocene or ruthenocene group to 6-aminopenicillinic acid, and their antibiotic properties were tested against a range of bacterial strains. To get a better understanding of how the 6-APA organometallic compounds interacted with the PBP active site, a CTX-M-14 β-lactamase model system was used for X-ray crystallographic studies. CTX-M-14 was chosen as its active site shares many key catalytic features with PBPs, and it easily, and reproducibly, yields crystals capable of diffracting to sub-atomic (< 1.0 Å) resolution. I determined a 1.18 Å structure of 6-APA-Ru in complex with CTX-M-14 E166A β-lactamase and was able to gain unprecedented details of the interactions of the ruthenocene group with the CTX-M active site. This structure also revealed that the compound bound in the CTX-M active site was actually the decarboxylated and hydrolyzed product, which was the first time a decarboxylated product had been captured in the CTX-M active site. A second, 0.85 Å, structure of CTX-M in complex with 6-APA-Ru was determined and shed light on how the hydrogen bonding network in the CTX-M active site changes in response to the 6-APA-Ru product binding. A final, 1.30 Å, structure captured the carboxylated and hydrolyzed 6-APA-Ru product in complex with CTX-M, which was the first time the carboxylated product had been captured in the CTX-M active with the catalytic Ser70 residue intact. The results show the potential of the ruthenocene group in improving antibiotic potency, and help to better elucidate the changes that occur in the CTX-M active site upon inhibitor binding, while at the same time, telling us what changes could occur in the active site of PBPs. The next project was focused on novel inhibitor discovery against several different PBPs. PBPs have been successfully inhibited by β-lactam antibiotics for decades, but the alarming rise of bacteria resistant to these antibiotics has placed increased urgency on the discovery of novel PBP inhibitors. A fragment based molecular docking approach was employed to virtually screen millions of small compounds for interactions with the targeted active sites, and then high scoring compounds were selected for visual inspection and inhibitory testing. Virtual screening was first done against Staphylococcus aureus monofunctional transglycosylase, a type of PBP. MTG provided a good binding pocket for virtual screening, but proved challenging to purify and crystallize. However, through great effort MTG crystals were eventually obtained. After repeated rounds of virtual screening against MTG, multiple compounds were selected for inhibition testing, and testing is currently ongoing. Virtual screening was also done against Pseudomonas aeruginosa PBP5 and PBP1a. Purification and crystallization of these proteins proved to be easier than MTG, and both yielded diffraction quality crystals. The final project focused on virtual screening against a protein implicated in the development of Alzheimer’s disease, Slingshot Phosphatase 1. The brains of AD patients have been found to contain elevated levels of active Cofilin, and these elevated levels of active Cofilin may lead to the overproduction of amyloid β. Aβ overproduction, and its resulting accumulation, is believed to be one of the pathways that lead to AD symptoms. Cofilin is activated when it is dephosphorylated by SSH1, and inhibiting this activation may decrease the production of Aβ and the development of AD symptoms. There is no known structure of SSH1, so to perform virtual screening a SSH1 homology model was constructed using the homolog SSH2 as a starting point. Virtual screening was then performed using the SSH1 homology model and many compounds were selected for inhibition testing. Initial testing found several compounds that could prevent Cofilin dephosphorylation at levels > 10μM. However, three compounds were found to be exceptionally active, and could prevent Cofilin dephosphorylation at both 1 and 10 μM. One of these three compounds was tested directly against purified SSH1 and found to inhibit its activity, and reduce Aβ production. Crystallization of purified SSH1, and SSH2, was attempted in order to get complex structures with the three best compounds. SSH2 crystals were obtained which diffracted to 1.91 Å, and several initial hits were found for SSH1. Optimization of crystals for both proteins is currently ongoing. The SSH1 inhibitor, along with the two other highly active compounds, provides an excellent starting point for the development of highly potent SSH1 inhibitors.

The introduction of antibiotics in healthcare is one of the most important medical achievements with regard to reducing human morbidity and mortality. However, bacterial pathogens have acquired antibiotic resistance at an increasing rate, and due to a high prevalence of resistance to some antibiotics they can no longer be used therapeutically. The antibiotic mecillinam, which inhibits the penicillin-binding protein PBP2, however, is an exception since mecillinam resistance (MecR) prevalence has remained low. This is particularly interesting since laboratory experiments have shown that bacteria can rapidly acquire MecR mutations by a multitude of different types of mutations. In this thesis, I examined mechanisms and dynamics of mecillinam resistance in clinical and laboratory isolates of Escherichia coli. Only one type of MecR mutations (cysB) was found in the clinical strains, even though laboratory experiments demonstrate that more than 100 genes can confer resistance Fitness assays showed that cysB mutants have higher fitness than most other MecR mutants, which is likely to contribute to their dominance in clinical settings. To determine if the mecillinam resistant strains could compensate for their fitness cost, six different MecR mutants (cysB, mrdA, spoT, ppa, aspS and ubiE) were evolved for 200-400 generations. All evolved mutants showed increased fitness, but the compensation was associated with loss of resistance in the majority of cases. This will also contribute to the rarity of clinical MecR isolates with chromosomal resistance mutations. How MecR is mediated by cysB mutations was previously unclear, but in this thesis I propose and test a model for the mechanism of resistance. Thus, inactivation of CysB results in cellular depletion of cysteine that triggers an oxidative stress response. The response alters the intracellular levels of 450 proteins, and MecR is achieved by the increase of two of these, the LpoB and PBP1B proteins, which rescue the cells with a mecillinam-inhibited PBP2. Mecillinam is used for UTI treatments and to investigate mecillinam resistance in a more host-like milieu, MecR strains were grown in urine and resistance was examined. Interestingly, this study showed that neither laboratory, nor clinical cysB mutants are resistant in urine, most likely because the cysteine present in the urine phenotypically reverts the bacteria to susceptibility. These findings suggest that mecillinam can be used to treat also those clinical strains that are identified as MecR in standard laboratory tests, and that testing of mecillinam susceptibility in the laboratory ought to be performed in media that mimics urine to obtain clinically relevant results. In summary, the work described in this thesis has increased ourgeneral knowledge of mecillinam resistance and its evolution. Hopefully this knowledge can be put to good use in clinical settings to reduce the negative impact of antibiotic resistance.