The primary goal of this study is to research the pressure imposed upon adolescents to perform as well as to suggest practical guidelines to counsel them. It is found that adolescents experience both external (parents, teachers, coaches and friends) and internal (perfectionism and the fear of failure) factors. Stress, anxiousness, depression, eating disorders, substance and alcohol abuse and even suicide have been found in terms of the effects of performance pressure as found with adolescents. The Bible enlightens us to the possible external factors of performance pressure found with adolescents. According to the Bible, parents have certain responsibilities in terms of raising their children, and discretion should be applied when selecting friends. The internal factors related to performance pressure, such as perfectionism and the fear of failure can be addressed within the context of the Bible's message, guiding the adolescent pastorally. The Bible provides general perspectives regarding anxiousness, stress, depression, suicide, eating disorders and substance and alcohol abuse that can be applied during the pastoral counseling of adolescents. Research of the literature found within the subject areas of psychology and sport sciences, regarding performance pressure, within the context of adolescents show that the motivation for parents, friends, teachers and coaches to pressure adolescents to perform. This research (from psychology and sport sciences) regarding depression, suicide, anxiousness, eating disorders and substance and alcohol abuse display the effect of performance pressure found within adolescents. A qualitative empirical study with five adolescents, provide the reader with a good comprehension of performance pressure experienced by adolescents. The perspectives found within the Bible, literature and empirical research are placed within a hermeneutical interaction to produce a practical theorem. Finally, practical guidelines can be formulated in the pastoral counseling of adolescents experiencing performance pressure. / Thesis (M.A. (Pastoral))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

The primary goal of this study is to research the pressure imposed upon adolescents to perform as well as to suggest practical guidelines to counsel them. It is found that adolescents experience both external (parents, teachers, coaches and friends) and internal (perfectionism and the fear of failure) factors. Stress, anxiousness, depression, eating disorders, substance and alcohol abuse and even suicide have been found in terms of the effects of performance pressure as found with adolescents. The Bible enlightens us to the possible external factors of performance pressure found with adolescents. According to the Bible, parents have certain responsibilities in terms of raising their children, and discretion should be applied when selecting friends. The internal factors related to performance pressure, such as perfectionism and the fear of failure can be addressed within the context of the Bible's message, guiding the adolescent pastorally. The Bible provides general perspectives regarding anxiousness, stress, depression, suicide, eating disorders and substance and alcohol abuse that can be applied during the pastoral counseling of adolescents. Research of the literature found within the subject areas of psychology and sport sciences, regarding performance pressure, within the context of adolescents show that the motivation for parents, friends, teachers and coaches to pressure adolescents to perform. This research (from psychology and sport sciences) regarding depression, suicide, anxiousness, eating disorders and substance and alcohol abuse display the effect of performance pressure found within adolescents. A qualitative empirical study with five adolescents, provide the reader with a good comprehension of performance pressure experienced by adolescents. The perspectives found within the Bible, literature and empirical research are placed within a hermeneutical interaction to produce a practical theorem. Finally, practical guidelines can be formulated in the pastoral counseling of adolescents experiencing performance pressure. / Thesis (M.A. (Pastoral))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

The concept of empowering leadership has attracted the attention of both academics and practitioners because of its important role in enhancing employee performance. Although empirical evidence clearly demonstrates that empowering leadership can have a significant effect on positive managerial outcomes, there is a paucity of research on its antecedents and processes through which it influences work outcomes. Thus, this study suggests a comprehensive conceptual model of empowering leadership, mainly focusing on the trickle-down effects of across levels of hierarchy. Specifically, based on theories of social learning and social exchange, this study examines the influence of empowering leadership of second-level leaders on subordinates’ various work outcomes through first-level leaders’ empowering leadership to help identify mediating process that may underlie relationships between second-level leaders and subordinates’ outcomes. Additionally, in order to explore the social learning of empowering leadership in detail, this study focuses on the antecedents and processes of empowering leadership learning. Data were obtained from subordinate–supervisor dyads from the South Korean Army. The results of this study showed mediating effects of first-level leaders’ empowering leadership on the relationship between second-level leaders’ empowering leadership and subordinates’ task performance, organizational citizenship behaviors, and social loafing. These results support the trickle-down effects of empowering leadership on subordinates’ outcomes. Moreover, LLX mediates the relationship between second-level leaders’ empowering leadership and the first-level leaders’ empowering leadership, and this result supports the social learning of empowering leadership. Exchange ideology also moderated the social learning of empowering leadership, such that the relationship was stronger when exchange ideology was low rather than high. The results of this study have both theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, this study provides empirical evidence to help determine whether second-level leaders’ empowering leadership facilitates first-level leaders’ empowering leadership. This study contributes to the literature by further examining the antecedents of empowering leadership by showing how relational, individual, and situational factors influence empowering leadership. This study also explains how empowering leadership can spread across multiple downward linkages by supporting the existence of “trickle-down effects” of empowering leadership. Practically, this study helps understand the importance of high-level leaders’ empowering leadership to facilitate their low-level leaders’ empowering leadership. This study also suggests the importance of relational, individual, and contextual factors to facilitate the social learning of empowering leadership. In conclusion, empowering leadership has a synergistic effect across leadership levels; therefore, top managers and high-level leaders should focus on training empowering leadership of field managers and leading by example to create a more empowering environment. However, this study has limitations, such as the use of cross-sectional analyses and perceptual data. Future research may seek to use longitudinal and objective measures.

L'évaluation et la notation des élèves font l'objet de débats actuels dans la communauté éducative (Rey & Feyfant, 2014). Les situations d’évaluation à l’école créent une « pression évaluative » et plusieurs ouvrages rapportent la tension et la peur que les élèves subissent. Les recherches sur le stress scolaire montrent que la détresse concernant les situations évaluatives est vue comme la première cause de l’anxiété et du stress à l’école. Outre les multiples problèmes de santé physique et mentale, ce stress peut produire un impact négatif sur les résultats scolaires.La question principale de notre recherche est : Est-ce que l’évaluation et la notation sont une source de stress chez les élèves et, si oui, perturbe-t-elle leur performance lors de la restitution des connaissances ? Nous avons conduit deux études expérimentales avec 126 élèves de collège en situation scolaire réelle, en faisant appel à des méthodes de la psychologie expérimentale et des neurosciences. Les résultats des deux expériences révèlent que lorsque les élèves de cette âge (11-12 ans) sont notés, ils subissent un stress important. Bien que ce stress n’altère pas la performance de façon majeure, il induit de moindres performances pour les objets les plus difficiles à catégoriser. Quand le temps de réponse est limité, les filles sont plus stressées par la notation que les garçons qui sont très stressés par le temps limité de réponse.Ces résultats posent une vraie question sur les finalités d’une évaluation des connaissances des élèves et jettent le doute sur ce qui est vraiment évalué : les connaissances acquises, ou les capacités des élèves à gérer le stress ? / The discussions on evaluation at school have been topical in the educational and academic community (Rey & Feyfant, 2014). Evaluating settings create a « test results pressure » and many studies report a constant fear which student feel in relation to such a pressure. Previous research reveals that assessments situations are the major source of school anxiety and stress in most western countries. Besides the important health and mental problem, ce stress may produce a negative effect on school results. The research question we try to find the answer is: if evaluations and assessments are a source of stress in young scholar students and if yes, in what way do they interfere with cognitive performance in situations of knowledge restitution.We conducted an experimental study in a real school context (n=126 students). We used the methodology and procedures of experimental psychology and neurosciences. The results of both experiments show that assessment situations are very stressful for the students of this age (11-12 y.o.). Even if the general performance was not much altered by the stress, the number of correct answers on very difficult pictures was inferior under stress. The girls were more stressed by the evaluating context, the boys were more affected by response time constraints. These results raise doubts as to whether an assessment context allows young school children to fully access to their personal resources and to show their real performance. One can doubt what is exactly assessed during evaluation: the true level of acquisition of school knowledge by students or, rather, their capacity to cope with stress induced by the evaluative pressure to perform well.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the lifeworld of the high-achieving young adolescent. A literature study was undertaken to determine the developmental level of young adolescents and their corresponding needs. The Bio-ecosystemic theory of Bronfenbrenner was used as theoretical basis to explore the level of influence in the life of the young adolescent. The role parental involvement plays in the life-experience and perceptions of young adolescents was also investigated. The results of the study indicated that the environment or lifeworld of young adolescents plays a big role in all the different aspects of their development. Parents, who are the closest entities in their lifeworld, have the strongest influence. Parental values, beliefs and attitudes are communicated through verbal and non-verbal interactions. Positive and negative conditional regard were found to be motivational tools used by parents to encourage young adolescents to perform according to their expectations. Young adolescents often internalise or introject parental values, beliefs and attitudes as a result of the level of their moral development. Unrealistic or perfectionistic expectations often lead to high levels of anxiety and stress. This could interfere with their normal developmental tasks of which identity formation, the development of self-control and self-regulation appear to be very important aspects. From the findings of the study, guidelines for parents and educators were compiled in support of young adolescents who find themselves in a high-achieving academic environment. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Guidance and Counselling)

The purpose of this study was to investigate the lifeworld of the high-achieving young adolescent. A literature study was undertaken to determine the developmental level of young adolescents and their corresponding needs. The Bio-ecosystemic theory of Bronfenbrenner was used as theoretical basis to explore the level of influence in the life of the young adolescent. The role parental involvement plays in the life-experience and perceptions of young adolescents was also investigated. The results of the study indicated that the environment or lifeworld of young adolescents plays a big role in all the different aspects of their development. Parents, who are the closest entities in their lifeworld, have the strongest influence. Parental values, beliefs and attitudes are communicated through verbal and non-verbal interactions. Positive and negative conditional regard were found to be motivational tools used by parents to encourage young adolescents to perform according to their expectations. Young adolescents often internalise or introject parental values, beliefs and attitudes as a result of the level of their moral development. Unrealistic or perfectionistic expectations often lead to high levels of anxiety and stress. This could interfere with their normal developmental tasks of which identity formation, the development of self-control and self-regulation appear to be very important aspects. From the findings of the study, guidelines for parents and educators were compiled in support of young adolescents who find themselves in a high-achieving academic environment. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Guidance and Counselling)